THE FRENCH VERB 



SCHELE DE VERE, Ph.D., LL.D 



WILLIAM R. JENKINS 



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THE FRENCH VERB. 



A New, Clear and Easy Method for the Study of 

the French Verb. 



BY 






PEOF. SCHELE DE YEEE, Ph.D., LL.D., 



OF THE UNIVEESITY OF VIEGINIA. 




WILLIAM R. JENKINS, 

&DITEUR ET LIBRAIRE FRANfAIS, 

851 & 853 Sixth Avenue. 

New York. 

1891. 



2ft 



\ 




PEEFACE. 



"Le Verbe est le lien de nos pensees." 

A short time ago Mr. Wm, R. Jenkins, encouraged by the 
success of his publications in French, came to the conclusion, 
that there was not only room, but perhaps even a call, for 
another work on French Verbs. It was to be a concise, but con- 
venient handbook for the younger learner as well as for the 
advanced student. The kind reception, on the part of the Public, 
of some French Dramas, published by him, as annotated by the 
Author, led him to entrust the carrying out of this plan to the 
latter. 

The author has brought to this new effort to facilitate the 
study of the French Verb the experience of over forty years in 
teaching French in this University, and the utmost patience 
combined with untiring research. But when it is remembered 
that the French Academy counts over forty thousand Verbs, 
and that the Brothers Bescherelles have filled two huge volumes 
with their List of French Verbs, it will be seen that the task is 
one of equal size and difficulty. And yet, the Verb is the essen- 
tial element of Language — hence its name, Verbum, the "Word 
by eminence, — which is more frequently used than any other 
part of speech. No man can speak or write correctly, who 
is not a perfect master of the Verb, and to add to correctness, 
precision, French vivacity and elegance, the nicest use of the 
many forms and inflections of the French Verb is necessary. 



11. PREFACE. 

It has been the author's desire to facilitate the study and the 
acquisition of this, the most important and at the same time, 
most difficult part of speech. For this purpose the highest and 
most recent authorities have been consulted and special pains 
have been taken to make the little work an aid to the younger 
pupil and at the same time, a valuable book of reference to the 
advanced scholar. To facilitate the elementary work of the 
learner, who may not be well grounded in a knowledge of English 
Grammar and of Latin Rules, each subject is introduced by a 
simple, succinct statement, and after that, the propositions laid 
before him, are more fullyexplained, and always copiously 
illustrated by examples. Lastly the peculiarities or idioms, 
connected with each subject under consideration, are also added. 
Thus, the author hopes the beginner will be familiarized, by 
regular drilling, with the simple definitions and the easier 
models of French Verbs, while to the advanced pupil will be 
opened the more difficult and more interesting parts of the 
subject, completing his work with a thorough study of the 
Idioms, which are so all-important in French. For it is one 
thing to possess a fund of forms and words for the expression of 
our ideas, and another thing, to have the power of using these 
forms and words according to the special genius of the language. 

To aid the learner in this task Complete Models are given 
of the Auxiliary Verbs, the Regular Verbs, and a sufficient num- 
ber of Irregular Verbs to facilitate the acquisition of the whole 
class. These Models are accompanied by copious examples, 
illustrating the use of these Verbs in connection with other parts 
of speech, such as the Personal Pronouns, en and y, the various 
Prepositions, &c. Complete lists of Defective Verbs and a large 
list of Idiomatic Verbs are also given, the latter as large as the 
available space would permit. Enough will be found to enable 
the student, while reading modern French authors to look up 
the idioms he may meet, and thus to facilitate translation and 
greatly to add to his enjoyment. 

The peculiar meanings and uses of Tenses and Moods, 



PREFACE. 111. 

especially of that most difficult of all kindred subjects, the Sub- 
junctive, which differ so essentially from English usage, are 
carefully explained and illustrated by examples which the 
teacher will, of course, multiply as may be needed. 

The author will be much gratified if the little book can 
make the study of French Verbs somewhat easier to the 
beginner, and at the same time, as a book of easy reference 
render some slight assistance to the many eminent teachers of 
French, who have of late raised this branch of the profession 
to the high position to which it has long been entitled. 

University of Virginia, Va. 
1891 



THE VEKB. 

1. — A VERB is the word which expresses either an action (physical 
or mental), or the receiving of an action, or a mere state of being, of a 
person or a thing : 

Charles tua un ours. Charles killed a bear. (Action) 
Cesar fut tue. Caesar was killed . (Receiv'g an action) 

L'homme est mortel. Man is mortal. (A state) 

2. — It is called the Verb, or the Word by eminence, because it is the 
most important of all words in a language. Without it language can- 
not fully convey a thought from one mind to another. Hence it is also 
often called the Soul of Speech. 

3. — The Verb, the name of which is called the Infinitive, consists 
of two parts : The Root, or Stem, which does not change; and the 
Termination, which varies in order to express, with the meaning 
of the Verb, also the idea of Person, Number, Time (Tense), and 
Mood : 

ROOT. TERM. ROOT. TERM. 

All-er, to go. Ven-ir, to come . 

All-ons, let us go. Ven-ez, do come. 

All-ant, going Ven-ons, let us come . 

All-e, gone. Ven-ti, come. 

Hence the important rule : 

The Pronounciation of the root in the Infinitive is the 
standard for the whole conjugation. The orthography of the root; 
must be changed so as to retain that sound, whatever termina- 
tion may be added, e. g. : 

Agac-er (soft c.) : agag-ons, agac-ant. (Adding cedilla.) 
Mang-er (soft g.) : mang-eons, mang-eant. (Adding mute e.) 

SUBJECT AND OBJECT OF THE YERB. 

4. — The Verb has a Subject and an Object, which may be Direct 
or Indirect. 
The Subject is the person or thing, which the Verb says that be 



THE YERB. 

1. — A YERB is the word which expresses either an action (physical 
or mental), or the receiving of an action, or a mere state of being, of a 
person or a thing : 

Charles tua un ours. Charles killed a bear. (Action) 
Cesar fut tue. Ceesar was killed . (Receiv'g an action) 

L'homme est mortel. Man is mortal. (A state) 

2. — It is called the Verb, or the Word by eminence, because it is the 
most important of all words in a language. Without it language can- 
not fully convey a thought from one mind to another. Hence it is also 
often called the Soul of Speech. 

3. — The Verb, the name of which is called the Infinitive, consists 
of two parts: The Root, or Stem, which does not change; and the 
Termination, which varies in order to express, with the meaning 
of the Yerb, also the idea of Person, Number, Time (Tense), and 
Mood : 



tOOT. TERM. 




ROOT. TERM. 




All-er, 


to go. 


Ven-ir, 


to come . 


All-ons, 


let us go. 


Ven-ez, 


do come . 


All-ant, 


going 


Ven-ons, 


let us come . 


All-e, 


gone. 


Ven-n, 


come. 



Hence the important rule : 

The Pronounciation of the root in the Infinitive is the 
standard for the whole conjugation. The orthography of the root 
must be changed so as to retain that sound, whatever termina- 
tion may be added, e. g. : 

Agac-er (soft c.) : agag-ons, agag-ant. (Adding cedilla.) 
Mang-er (soft g.) : mang-eons, mang-eant. (Adding mute e.) 

SUBJECT AND OBJECT OF THE YERB. 

4-. — The Verb has a Subject and an Object, which may be Direct 
or Indirect. 
The Subject is the person or thing, which the Verb says that be 



SUBJECT AND OBJECT OF THE VERB. 



or it is doing something — or suffering something —or is merely in a 
state, or condition : 



Dieu seul gouverne. (Subject : Dieu.) 
Le del est convert. (Subject : Le del.) 
L' enfant dort. (Subject : U enfant.) 



God alone rules. 
The sky is covered. 
The child sleeps. 



To find the Subject of a Verb we ask : 

Qui est-ce qui ? Who is it who ? or 

Qu' est-ce qui ? What is it that ? 

and the answer gives the subject : 

L'homme est mortel. 
Qui est-ce qui est mortel f 

Rep. L'homme — Subject. Ans. Man — Subject. 



Man is mortal. 

Who is it who is mortal ? 



La mort nous surprend tous. 
Qu' est-ce qui surprend f 

Rep. La Mort — Subject. 



Death surprises all of us. 
What is it that surprises ? 

Ans. Death — Subject. 



The Subject of the Verb may be any part of speech. 



A Noun : L'homme perit. 
A Pronoun : II aime sapatrie. 
A Verb : Aimer est un besoin. 
An Adverb : Tant de soins m'ac- 

cablent. 
A whole Proposition -.Aimer le 

prochain est une loi. 



Man perishes. 

He loves his country. 

To love is a necessity. 

So much kindness over- 
whelms me. 

To love your neighbour is a 
law. 



5. — The Object of the Verb (often called its Complement), is the 
person or thing that receives the action of the Verb. It may be the 
Direct Object when the action of the Verb affects it directly or 
immediately : 

On estime cet ecrivain € They esteem this author. 

To find the Direct Object of a Verb we ask : qui, after the Verb, 
for persons, or que after the Verb, for things, and the answer gives the 
Direct Object : 

J' aime ma mere. I love my mother. 

Qui aime-je ? Whom do I love ? 

Rep. Ma Mere— Dir. Ob. Ans, My Mother— Pir. Ob, 



SUBJECT AND OBJECT OF THE VERB. 3 

The Object of the Verb may be its Indirect Object, when the 
action affects it only indirectly: — i, e, by means of a Preposition, like 
de, a, pour, etc. 

On pense trop peu a autrui. We think too little of others. 

To find the Indirect Object, we ask : de qui, a qui, pour qui, etc. 
after the Verb in the interrogative form, and the answer gives the 
Indirect Object. 

Elles medisent de la Reine. They sppak ill of the Queen. 

De qui medisent-elles f Of whom do they speak ill ? 

Rep. De la Reine — Ind. Ob. Arts. Or the Queen — Ind. Ob. 

llsparlent a leurs parents. They speak to their relations. 

A qui parlent-ils f To whom do they speak ? 

Rep. ALEUnsPARENTs-Ind. Ob. Ans. To their B,ELATioNS-Ind. Ob. 

11 mound pour lapatrie. He died for his country. 

Pour qui mourut-il ? For whom did he die ? 

Rep. Pour la PATRiE-Ind. Ob. Ans. For his CouNTRY-Ind. Ob. 

The Object of the Verb may be any part of speech ; for example : 

A Noun : Dieu erea le monde. God created the world. 

A Pronoun : Nous nousflattons tons. We all flatter ourselves. 

A Verb : R desire vous eonnaitre. He wishes to know you. 

An Adverb : J'ai beaucoup souffert. I have suffered greatly. 

Pronouns, which are Objects of a Verb do not show in their form 
the difference between a Direct and an Indirect Object, having 
often but one form for both. This must be, therefore, ascertained 
by analysis i 

Je me blesse {me — Dir. Ob. ) I hurt myself. 

Je mefais mal {me — Ind. Ob.— a moi.) I do harm to myself. 
H nousjuge {nous — Dir. Ob.) He judges us. 

R nous dit tout {nous — Ind. Ob. — a nous) He tells us all. 
Tu te trompes {te — Dir. Ob.) Thou deceivest thyself. 

Tu te casses le bras {te — Ind. Ob. — a toi) Thou breakest thy arm. 
Rs se vantent {se — Dir. Ob.) They praise themselves. 

Rs se nuisent beaucoup (se-Ind. Ob. -dsoi) They do great harm to 

themselves. 



THE KINDS OF VEKBS. 

French Verbs are of six different kinds : Auxiliary Verbs, mainly 
used to conjugate all other Verbs. — Active Verbs, expressing an 
action with a direct object. — Neuter Verbs, neither Active nor 
Passive Verbs. — Passive Verbs, expressing an action, not performed 
but suffered by the Subject. — Pronominal Verbs, which are always 
used with two Pronouns. — And Impersonal Verbs, which are only 
used in the third person Singular. 

AUXILIARY VERBS. 

Io — Auxiliary Verbs are those which, besides having a meaning 
of their own, are also used to conjugate other Verbs. They are two : 
Avoir, to have ; and Etre, to be . 

As Independent Verbs Avoir and Etre are complete Active Verbs; e.g. 

11 a une grande fortune. He has a large fortune. 

Elle avait lafievre. She had the fever. 

Qui est cet homme f Who is this man? 

Nous sommes Americains, We are Americans. 

As Auxiliary Verbs, avoir and etre are used : 

1. — To form their own Compound Tenses, with their Participles Past 
eu 9 had (pronounced u), and ete, been. 

H aeu deux freres. He has had two brothers. 

Elle aurait eu son amour. She would have had his love. 

Nous avons ete en France. We have been in France. 

Us eurent ete malades. They had been sick. 

2. — Avoir is used to form the Coumpound Tenses of all Active Verbs, 
with their Part. Past. 

H avait tue un ours. He had killed a bear. 

Mon ami m'aurait oublie. My friend would have forgotten me. 

3. — Avoir is used to form the Compound Tenses of such Neuter 
Verbs as express action (not merely a state) : 

11 avait soupe chez son maitre. He had supped at his master's. 
Elle a parcouru toute VAllemagne. She has travelled all over Germany. 

4.. — Avoir is used to form the Compound Tenses of such Impersonal 



ACTIVE VERBS. 6 

Verbs as cannot also be used as Personal Verbs : 

H a plu ce matin. It rained this morning. 

H avait neige toute la nuit. It had been snowing all night. 

[For Idiomatic Uses of avoir see page 143. 
For Use of il y a see page 147.] 

5. — Etre is used to form the Compound Tenses of such Neuter Verbs 
as express (no action but) a mere state : 

Je suis reste la-bas. I remained out there. 

Nous sommes sortis avant vous. We went out before you. 

Note.— Eire is only used in the Infinitive Mood, and when used with a 
Subject takes other forms such as suis, sommes, sont, etc. 

6. — Etre is used to form the Compound Tenses of Pronominal Terbs 
(which are conjugated with two Pronouns): 

Reflexive : Elle s'est donne la mort. She has given herself death. 

Reciprocal : Us se sont battus hier. They have fought each other 

yesterday. 
Pronom. proper: Elle s'est deja levee. She is already up. 

7. — Etre is used to form the Passive Voice of Active Verbs, with their 
Part. Past : 

Elle sera punie. She will be punished. 

II fut exile de lapatrie. He was banished from his country. 

[For Idiomatic uses of etre, see page 148. 
For the use of etre for alter, see page 149.] 

ACTIVE VERBS. 

II, — Active Verbs (also called Transitive) express an action that is 
directly transmitted to an Object : 

L* habit change les mcenrs. Clothes change manners. 
Brutus tua Cesar. Brutus killed Caesar. 

To find out if a Verb is an Active Verb or not, we place : 

Quelqu'un, Somebody or Quelque chose, Something, 
after the interrogative form of the Verb, and if this expresses a 



6 NEUTER VERBS. 

thought, the Verb is Active : 

Je vois monfrere. I see my brother. 

Voyez-vous quelqu'un f Do you see somebody ? 

Rep. Oui, mon frere. — Obj. Arts. Yes, my brother. — Obj. 

11 fait son devoir. He does his duty. 

Fait-il quelque chose ? Does he do anything ? 

Rep. Oui, son devoir! — Obj. Arts. Yes, his duty! — Obj. 

Note.— There are 5354 Active Verbs, which form their Compound Tenses by 
the aid of avoir, and 241 use etre, being Impersonal Verbs. 

NEUTER TERES. 

III. — Neuter Verbs (also called Intransitive), were originally so 
called because they are neither Active nor Passive Verbs. These 
Neuter Verbs express : 

1. — An Action confined altogether to the Subject or but only indir- 
ectly affecting an Object : — i. e. by means of a Preposition. 

II plait a tout le monde. He pleases everybody. 

Elle medit meme de sa sozur. She speaks ill even of her sister. 

2. — A mere state or condition of being : 

Elle dort toute la unit. She sleeps all night. 

H souffre de ses blessures. He suffers from his wounds. 

Note.— Of the 600 Neuter Verbs about 580 make their Compound Tenses by the 
aid of avoir, as they express some kind of action, though without a Direct Object. 

H 7ious a suivis partout . He has followed us everywhere. 
H avait sonne minuit. It had already struck midnight. 

The others use etre, as they express a mere state of being : 

Nous sommes demeures ici . We have stayed here. 

Elle est deja rentree. She has already come home. 

Some Neuter Verbs use avoir or etre, according as their meaning 
changes, using avoir when they express an action of any kind that is 
not direct, and etre, when expressing a state : 

II a passe la riviere (action) . He has crossed the river. 
La procession estpassee (state). The procession has gone by. 
Cet homw,e a change de visage. This man has changed in his face. 



PASSIVE VERBS. 7 

U est change pour le mieux. He is changed for the better. 
U a demeure a Paris. He has lived in Paris. 

Elle est demeuree chez elle. She remained at home. 

[For a list of Verbs conjugated with avoir, and those with etre, 
see page 36.] 

A number of Verbs are Active in English, but Neuter in French e. g., 
obeir, nuire, pardonner, plaire, ressembler, etc. 

Ilfaut obeir a nos superieurs. We must obey our superiors. 

H sait plaire a tout le monde . He knows how to please everybody. 

Elle ressemble a sa mere. She resembles her mother. 

A Number of English Neuter Verbs can also be used as Active Verbs, 
without producing any change. This cannot be done so in French, and 
in cases in which the Action is not usually performed by men, the 
Verb faire is used with them, e. g. 

The water is already boiling. L y eau bout dejd. 

The woman is boiling the soup. La femme fait bouillir la soupe. 

The apples were hanging on the tree. Les pommes pendaient a Varbre. 
The judge has hanged that traitor. Le juge a fait pendre ce traitre. 

This linen is not drying well. Ce linge ne sechepas bien. 

Dry this linen in the garden. Faites seeker ce linge aujardin. 

PASSIVE VERBS. 

IT. — Passive Verbs they are those which express an action 
suffered (not performed) by the Subject, a person or a thing : 

Le voleur a ete pris. The thief has been caught. 

La paix etant conclue... Peace being concluded... 

Passive Verbs consist of the Aux. Verb etre with the Participle 
Past of the Active Verb, (which alone can be used as Passive Verbs,) 
and the Participle agrees with the Subject : 

Le roi n y apas ete bien regu. The king has not been well received. 
La forteresse est prise ! The fortress is taken ! 

Passive Verbs are not much used in French, because a special form 
for it, such as the Latin had : 
isxmo : I love — amor : I am loved— amare: to love^ — amari : to be loved), 



8 PASSIVE VERBS. 

is wanting. Preference is given to the corresponding Active Con- 
struction . 

Not : Tous les citoyens sont proteges All citizens are protected by- 
par la loi. law. 
Bjt: La loi protege tous les citoyens. The law protects all citizens. 

Not : Tous les jours des hommes Every day men are seen who. . . 

sont vus qui... 
But: On voit tous les jours des We daily see men who.,. 

hommes qui... 

There are mainly three constructions, which are used as Substitutes 
for the lost Passive Voice : 

1. — The Infinitive of Active Terbs is used after etre y instead of the 
Passive Infinitive. 

Cet homme est dplaindre. This man is to be pitied. 
Cette maison sera a louer. This house will be (for rent). 

2. — The Active Terb is used as a Reflexive Yerb, when no action has 
taken place : 

Not : L'air est compose de deux gaz. The air is composed of two gases. 
But : Uair se compose de deux gaz. 

Not : Ce mot riest pas trouve dans This word is not found in the 

le dictionnaire. dictionary. 

But : Ce mot ne se trouve pas dans 

le dictionnaire. 

3. — The third person Singular of the Active Verb is used with on as 
its subject, when the agent is not known, or purposely left unmentioned : 

Not : Tax ete vu avec cet homme. I have been seen with that man. 
But : On m'a vu avec cet homme. 

Not : Nous aurions ete punis. We would have been punished. 

But : On nous aurait punis. 

The Agent of Passive Terbs is preceded by par (by) when the Verb 
expresses physical agency, and by de when the action is moral, expres- 
sing a sentiment. 

Cepaysfut conquis par ce roi. This country was conquered by this king. 
La reine etait aimee de tous. The queen was beloved by everybody. 



PRONOMINAL VERBS. 



PRONOMINAL TERES. 

y — Pronominal Verbs are so called because they are throughout 
their conjugation accompanied by two Pronouns, of which one is the 
Subject and the other is the Object of the Verb. All are accompanied 
by se in the Infinitive and all are conjugated with etre. They are divided 
in three classes. 

1. — Reflexive Yerbs, which represent the action of the Verb as re- 
acting upon the Subject — hence the se of the Infinitive is translated by : 
self. 

frous nous sommes baignes ici. "We took a bath here. 

Vous vous y trompez souvent. You often deceive yourselves in that. 

2. — Reciprocal Yerbs, which represent the action of the Verb as 
reciprocal between Subject and Object, the se of the Infinitive being 
translated : one another or each other. 

lis se sont battusjusqu'd la unit. They fought each other till night. 
Elles seflattent ear' elles se crai- They flatter each other for they 
gnent. fear each other. 

3. — Pronominal Yerbs Proper, are so called because they are Prono- 
minal Verbs in form, and in French only — but in English, common Active 
Verbs. The se of the Infinitive, hence, is not translated at all. 

Je me leve a sepi heures du I get up at seven o'clock in the 

matin. morning. 

On se mefie des autres. We mistrust others. 

On se defie de soi. We distrust ourselves. 

Active Yerbs frequently, and even some Neuter Yerbs, assume the 
form of Pronominal Verbs, but only in the third person Singular : — and 
for the special purpose of brevity or energy of expression : 

II s'est donne une grande bataille. A great battle has been fought. 
U s'y bdtit bon nombre de maisons. A good many houses are built there. 

The Double Pronouns which accompany all Pronominal Verbs are : 
Singular : 

1st p. — Je me orje m' before vowels or silent h. I — myself. 
2nd p.— Tute or tuV " " Thou— thyself. 

3rd p.— 17 se or il s' " " He— himself. 

Ellese or elles' " « She— herself. 



10 PRONOMINAL VERBS. 

Plural : 
1st p. — Nous nous We — ourselves. 

2nd p. — Vous vous. You — yourselves. 

3rd p. — lis se or Us s' before vowels or silent h. They (m.) — themselves. 
Elles se or elles s' " " They (f.)— themselves. 

In all these cases the Pronouns of the 1st and 2nd p. are the same 
for Direct and Indirect Objects, and to ascertain which it is, Analysis 
is necessary : 

Je me blesse (moi — Dir. Ob.) I wound myself. 

Je mefais mal (a mot — Ind. Ob.) I do harm to myself. 

11 tejuge severement (te — Dir. Ob.) He judges thee severely. 

II te dit le meme (a toi — Ind. Ob.) He tells the same to thee. 

Nous nous trompons souvent (nous.) We often deceive ourselves. 

Nous nous imaginons cela (d nous.) We fancy that. 

Je vous excuse volontiers (vous.) I excuse you willingly. 

Je vous dirai tout (a vous.) I will tell you all. 

But in the third persons the Pronouns show the difference : 

H le tuapar malheur (le — Dir. Ob.) He killed him unfortunately. 
II lux donna la lettre (lui — Ind. Ob.) He gave the letter to him. 
II la voyait et la saluait (la — Dir. Ob.) He saw her and bowed to her. 
On lui confia le secret (lui— Ind. Ob.) They confided the secret to her. 
Je les entendis chanter (les — Dir. Ob.) I heard them sing. 
Je leur ecris le lundi (leur Ind. Ob.) I write to them on Mondays. 

The Pronoun of the Infinitive agrees with the subject of the preceding 
Verb. 

Je veux me laver la figure (me agrees I want to wash my face. 

withje) 
Tupeux fen aller (te agrees with tu.) Thou canst go if thou wilt. 
Hvas'ennuyerau spectacle (il and se.) He will be tired at the theatre.) 
Ellepeut se tromper (elle and se.) She may deceive herself. 

In the Imperative the Pronoun follows the Verb, after a hyphen. 

Cachez-vous ou vous voudrez. Conceal yourself wherever you want. 
Allez-vous-en de suite ! Go away at once \ 

and, as usual, me changes into moi and te into toi, but both resume their 
first form when the Imperative is negative— or when they are followed 
by en or y : 

Tais-toi (and not : tais-te), mon ami, et Be silent, friend, and hide 
te cache! thyself! 



PRONOMINAL VERBS. 



11 



Ne te cache pas la-dedans ! (because negative). Do not hide in there ! 
Donnez-moi (not : donnez-me) ces lettres ! Give me those letters ! 

Donnez-m'en deux an moins! {me before en). Give me at least two 

of them ! 
Va-t'en et ne nVen parle plus ! Go away and say no more about it ! 

The Reciprocal Pronoun se is often reinforced by the addition of Vun 
V autre when only two are spoken of, and les uns les autres when more 
are mentioned : 

Nous nous secourons Vun V autre. We (two) assist one another. 
lis se battaient vaillamment les They (armies) fought each other 
uns les autres. valiantly. 

In all Pronominal Yerbs Proper the second Pronoun is always the 
Direct Object, except in the following : sa,rroger y s'approprier and 
s'imaginer, where it i? the Indirect Object : 

Elle s'appropria tout Vameuble- She appropriated the whole fur- 

ment (d soi.) niture (to herself.) 

Quoi ? Elle s" imagine cela, (a elle ?) What? Does she fancy that, she? 

Pronominal Verbs cease to be such when used after faire : 



Faites asseoir ces messieurs! 
Elle fait lever les enfants a 

cinq heures. 
Je vousferai repentir de celal 



Give seats to these gentlemen ! 
She makes the children get up 

at five. 
I'll make you feel sorry for that ! 



A List of Genuine Pronominal Verbs: 



s'absenter 
s'accroupir 
s'acharner 
s'adonner 
s'agenouiller 
s'agriffer 
sarroger 
se blottir 
se cabrer 
se carrer 
se comporter 
se defter 
se demener 
se desister 



se devergonder 

s'ebahir 

s'ebouler 

s'ecrier 

s'ecrouler 

s'embusquer 

s'emparer 

s'empresser 

s'en alter 

s'enfuir 

s'enquerir 

s'enqueter 

s'en retourner 

s'escrimer 



s'estomaquer 

s'evader 

s'evanouir 

s y evaporer 

s'evertuer 

s'extasier 

seformaliser 

se gendarmer 

sHmmiscer 

sHndustrier 

sHngenier 

sHngerer 

se mefler 

se meprendre 



se moquer 
s'opinidtrer 
se prosterner 
se parjurer 
se raviser 
se rebeller 
se recrier 
se refrogner 
se refugier 
se remparer 
se rengorger 
se repentir 
se souvenir 



12 IMPERSONAL VERBS. 

IMPERSONAL TERES. 

VI.— Impersonal Verbs (often called Unipersonal) are so called 
because they are used only in the third person Singular : Their Subject 
is never a person, and is always represented by il (it) : 

Upleut aujouroVhuu It is raining to-day. 

U a neige ce matin. It snowed this morning. 

These Impersonal Verbs are either Genuine Impersonal Verbs, which 
are never used personally, or they are Spurious Impersonal Verbs, 
which may have a Subject following them. 

1. — Genuine Impersonal Verbs are those which cannot be used 
personally and mostly serve to express the workings of Nature — and 
hence have no direct or immediate Subject. 

11 gele et degele tous les matins. It freezes and thaws every morning. 
II tonne et il grele en meme temps. It thunders and it hails at the same 

time. 

But they also express such sensations as in themselves are personal, but 
may also be stated, and frequently are stated, impersonally, e. g. 

Nous ignorons quand il fait jour. "We do not know when day breaks. 
II a fait beau toute la semaine. We have had fine weather the 

whole week. 

And also such effects as may have a Subject, but such a one as we, for 
the time, care not to mention : 

U fume dans cette chambre. It smokes in this room. 

II sent bon ici — qvCest-ce qvCil y a? It smells sweet here — what is it? 

2. — Spurious Impersonal Verbs are such as have a Subject following 
them in the shape of a Noun, a Verb or even a small sentence : 

R en sera fait mention plus tard. Mention will be made of this later on. 

11 vaut mieux se taire. It is better to be silent. 

R importa qvCil fut ici. It was important he should be here. 

Genuine Impersonal Verbs can be distinguished from Spurious Imper- 
sonal Verbs by this impossibility of giving them a Subject in the place 
of il. Thus ilfaut is a Genuine Imp. Verb because it is impossible to 
say : L 'homme font or Quelque chose faut — but, il arrive is Spurious, 
because we can say : Le roi arrive or Quelque chose arrive. 

This is all the more important, as a number of Active and many 



IMPERSONAL VERBS. 



13 



Neuter Verbs are, at times, used impersonally, with an Indefinite 
Subject, e. g. 

It has cost him an arm. 

His fame is at stake. 

It was the same (so) with all of them. 

It would amount to nothing. 

Impersonal Verbs, when they are used figuratively, become Per- 
sonal Verbs : 



U lui en a coute un bras. 
By va de sa gloire. 
11 en etait de meme de tons. 
II rien serait Hen. 



The shells rained down upon them. 
It rains eggs, apples and even 
stones . 



Les bombes pleuvaient sur eux. 
Les ceufs, les pommes, les pier- 
res memes pleuvent. 

The majority of Impersonal Verbs form their Compound Tenses with 
the aid of avoir — a few only, with etre. 

11 a plu et il a fait beau temps. It rained and it was fine weather. 
U est arrive un grand malheur. A great misfortune has happened. 

The Impersonal Verb, il s'agit, has the idiomatic meaning : " The 
question is, " etc. 

SHI s'agissait de sipeu... If the question was so small a matter... 

U s'est agi de vous au conseil. You were discussed in the Council. 

Note-— Some Verbs, which are used accidentally also as Pronominal Verbs, 
have a different meaning from the original one, when used pronominally, e. g. 



Apercevoir 


to perceive. 


s'apercevoir 


to become aware, 


Attendre 


— wait. 


s'attendre 


— rely upon. 


Battre 


— beat. 


se battre 


— fight. 


Demettre 


— remove. 


se demettre 


— resign. 


Douter 


— doubt. 


se douter 


— suspect. 


Imaginer 


— invent. 


sHmaginer 


— fancy. 


Passer 


— pass. 


se passer 


— do without. 


Plaindre 


— pity. 


se plaindre 


— complain. 


Plaire 


— please. 


se plaire 


— delight in. 


Servir 


— serve. 


se servir 


— make use of. 


Soustraire 


— remove. 


se soustraire 


— escape from. 


Verbs used reflectively in French 


, though not in 


English : 


S'abonner 


to subscribe. 


S'evaporer 


to evaporate. 


S'abstenir de 


— abstain from. 


se f acker de 


— get angry at. 


S'accorder avec 


— agree. 


se f acker avec 


— fall out with. 



I 



14 



THE CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 



S'apercevoir de 


to perceive. 


se faire a 


to get used to. 


S' arret er 


— stop. 


se defaire de 


— ged rid of. 


S'asseoir 


— sit down . 


se farder 


— paint (face). 


S'assurer de 


— ascertain. 


sefier a 


— trust. 


S'aviser de 


— take it into 
ones head. 


sefigurer 


— imagine. 


Se baigner 


— bathe. 


se fletrir 


— fade. 


Se baisser 


— stoop. 


se formaliser de 


— take offense. 


Se connaitre a 


— be a judge of 


se glisser 


— creep . 


Se coucher 


— lie down. 


se hater de 


— hasten. 


Se debattre 


— struggle. 


sHmaginer 


— fancy. 


Se dedire 


— retract. 


se lever 


— rise. 


Se defter de 


— mistrust. 


se marier avec 


— marry. 


Se depecher a 


— make haste. 


se mefier 


— mistrust. 


Se douter de 


— suspect. 


se meprendre 


— mistake. 


Semparer de 


— seize upon. 


se mettre 


— dress, sit. 


S'empecher de 


— help. 


se mettre a 


— begin. 


S'emporter 


— get angry. 


se moquer de 


— laugh at. 


S 'empresser de 


— be eager 


se passer de 


— do without. 


S'en alter 


— go away. 


s y en prendre a 


— hold responsi 
ble. 


S'endormir 


— fall asleep. 


se promener 


— take a walk. 


S' en fair 


— run away. 


seplaindre de 


— complain. 


S enhardir 


— make bold 


se rappeler 


— recall. 


S'enrhumer 


— catch cold. 


se rejouir de 


— rejoice. 


S'enrichir 


— grow rich . 


se repentir de 


— repent. 


S'entretenir avec 


! — converse. 


se reposer 


— rest. 


S'en venir 


— come away. 


se revolter 


— revolt. 


S'envoler 


— fly away . 


se servir de 


— make use of. 


Seprendre de 


— fall in love. 


se soumettre a 


— submit. 


S'epanouir 


— expand. 


se souvenir de 


— remember. 


S'etonner de 


— wonder at. 


se vanter de 


— boast. 


S'evanouir 


— faint. 






THE CONJUGATION OF VEEBS. 



The Conjugation of Verbs means the variety of forms which 
Verbs assume by changing their termination, to express the connection 
of the Meaning of the Verb with the ideas of Number, Person, Time 



HOW VERBS ARE CONJUGATED. 15 

and Mood. As they agree with the character of these changes, Verbs 
are said to have four Conjugations or Models, according to which they 
are changed. These four Conjugations are known by their termina- 
tion in the Infinitive : 

The First Conjugation, containing the majority of all Verbs, (estimated 
at 4000 out of 4700) ends in the Infinitive in er (prononced like e) : 
parler — to speak. 

The Second Conjugation ends in ir (the r is pronounced) \finir — to finish. 
The Third Conjugation ends in oir : recevoir — to receive. 
The Fourth Conjugation ends in re : rendre — to return. 

Moreover, French Verbs are divided according to the fidelity with 
which they follow these four models, into three classes : Regular, 
Irregular and Defective Verbs. 

The Regular Verbs are those which follow in their Conjugation the 
established Model, according to which the different terminations are 
added to the root, in a uniform manner. 

The Irregular Yerbs are those which deviate in certain parts, and in 
various ways, from this Model. 

The Defective Yerbs are those which, by established usage, do not 
use certain Moods or Tenses, and more or less substitute Moods etc. of 
other Verbs for their own. 

HOW YERBS ARE CONJUGATED. 

Verbs are conjugated in four different ways : Affirmatively, Negat- 
ively, Interrogatively, and Negatively and Interrogatively. They are 

conjugated : 

I. — Affirmatively , when the subject, be it Noun or Pronoun, 
precedes the Verb : 

Cet homme parle bien. This man speaks well. 

11 etale trop ses connaissances. He displays his knowledge too much. 

Note.— The use of the Verb to do with other Yerbs (I did like him— Did you 
see it?) is unknown in French ; it remains untranslated and the simple Verb 
takes its place . 

I do not know what it means. Je ne sais point ce que cela vent dire. 
Do you see that man there ? Voyez-vous cet homme-ld ? 
They did not come after all. Rs ne venaient point apres tout. 



16 HOW VERBS ARE CONJUGATED. 

II. — Negatively, in which case the Verb is enclosed between the 
two parts of which every Negation in French consists : the unchanging 
particle ne, and the other Adverb, which constantly changes, e. g.—pas, 
point, personne, etc. 

11 ne sait pas ce quHlfait. He does not know what he is doing. 
Elle ne reviendra jamais. She will never return. 

except in the Infinitive, which is generally preceded by both Negatives 
at once : 

Parler est bien ; ne pas parler vaut To speak is well ; not to speak 
mieux. is better. 

although th usual construction alos occurs : 
II V accuse de n y etrepas venu . He charges him with not having come. 

In the Compound Tenses the Auxiliary is the Verb proper, and hence 
it will be enclosed betwen the two parts of the Negative, and not the 
Participle 

Nous n'avons pas encore dine. We have not dined yet. 
Cet homme n'est pas mort. That man is not dead . 

Ne, of course, elides its e (n f ) before Verbs beginning with a vowel or 
mute h, and before en and y : 

Vous n'avezpas assez deforce. You have not strength enough. 

Elle nHra pas plus loin. She will not go any further. 

Nen dites Hen . Say nothing of it. 

Elles rty seront pas encore. They will not be there yet. 

A considerable number of Negative Adverbs are used with Verbs in 
the same manner as pas. The following are the most common : 
Elle n 'a point de sens commun y {point). She has no common sense. 
II ne dit rien et ne fait rien, {rien). He says nothing and does 

nothiDg. 
Vous rten voulezplus Monsieur? {plus). You do not want any more, Sir? 
Hn'y a personne qui le sache. {personne). There is no one who knows it. 
Je n'en connais aucun. {aucun). I do not know anyone of them. 

Nous rtaurons nul doute. {nut). We shall have no doubt about it. 

Nousn'y fumes pas ,nilesautres, {ne-ni). We were not there, nor the 

others. 
Elle ne sait que tricoter. {ne-que). She only knows how to knit. 

A few others are rarer and mostly dialetic, e. g. 



HOW VERBS ARE CONJUGATED. it 

On rty voit goutte, (goutte). Nothing at all is seen there. 
11 ne mange mie. (mie). He eats nothing at all. 

In the Negative Imperative, me and te do not change into moi and toi, 
as in the Affirmative Imperative: 
Aide-toi et Dieu Vaidera. Help thyself and God will help thee. 

Ne f accuse pas desf antes oVau- Do not blame thyself for other 
trui. people's faults. 

When negative Adverbs are used elliptically (without a Verb) ne is 
is omitted : 

Voulez-vous diner avec nous Will you dine with us to-day? 

aujourdliui ? 
Pas aujourdhui, merci ! Not to-day, thank you ! 

QiCest-ce quHl y a la-dedans ? What is in this ? 
Rien du tout ! Nothing at all ! 

Qui est done au salon? Who is then in the parlour? 

Personne queje sache ! No one, as far as I know ! 

Point d' argent, point de Suisse. No money, no Swiss! 

Nor can Negatives with Adverbs only (not much, not very) be thus 
used in French : the Verb of the question must be repeated : 

Are you very tired? Etes vous bien fatigue f 

Not very ! Je ne suis pas trop fatigue I 

Do you like chicory? Aimez-vous la chicoree ? 

Not very much ! Je ne Vaimepas trop. 

Nor is the English word ' ' one " translated in a negative sentence : 
Have you learnt any of these Avez-vous appris une de ces chan- 

songs ? sons f 

No, Sir, I have not learnt one. Non monsieur, je rten aipas appris. 
Has he received a letter ? A-t-il regu une lettre t 

No, Sir, not one ! Non, monsieur, il n'en a pas regu ! 

ILL— Interrogatively, in which case the Subject is placed after the 
Verb : simply, when the Subject is a Pronoun, but twice when it is a 
Noun ; the Noun first, then the Verb, and then the Subject once more 
in the shape of the corresponding Pronoun. 

1. — When the Subject is a Pronoun it is placed after the Verb and 
connected with it by a hyphen. In Compound Tenses the Pronoun 
follows the Auxiliary, with a hyphen : 

Crois-tu qyCil soit mort ? Does thou think he is dead ? 



18 HOW VERBS ARE CONJUGATED. 

Avez-vous vu ce beau spectacle 9 Have you seen that fine sight ? 

Irons-nous ensemble 9 Shall we go together ? 

Ai-je dit assez pour vous con- Have I said enough to con- 
vaincre 9 vince you ? 

The First Person Sing. Present Indie, and Preter. Defin. Sub. , both 
ending in e, put an acute accent (e) on the e, when followed by je } to 
avoid two acute e in succession. 

Parle-je assez haut 9 Do I speak loud enough ? 

Offre-je assez d' argent 9 Do I offer enough money? 
Dusse-jeperir, firai. Even if I should perish, I shall go. 

The Third Person Sing, of any Tense, ending in a Vowel, and fol- 
lowed by il, elle or on, puts t between two hyphens between the Verb 
and the Pronoun, to avoid the hiatus. 

Qu'a-t-il dit, et elle, qu?a-t-elle What did he say and she, what did 

fait 9 she do? 

Aura-t-on bientot fini 9 Will they soon have done ? 

Monosyllabic forms of the Verb are not often used interrogatively. 
To avoid their use, the construction Est-ce-que — (is it that), followed by 
the Verb, is substituted— especially when surprise is to be expressed : 
Not : Vends-je 9 But : Est-ce queje vends trop cher 9 Do I sell too cheap? 
Not : Habite-t-il ici 9 But : Est-ce quHl habite ici 9 Does he live here ? 
Est-ce que vous Vavez tue 9 (What !) Did you (really) kill him ? 

Usage excepts from this rule, the following monosyllabic Verbs : 
Ai-je 9 Have I ? Fais-je 9 Do I ? Vais-je 9 Go I ? 

Dis-je9 Say I? Dois-je9 Must I? Vois-je 9 Seel? 

2. — When the Subject is a Noun, this is placed at the head of the 
sentence and then repeated, after the Verb — in Compound Tenses, after 
the Auxiliary — in the form of the corresponding Pronoun : 

Will my brother arrive to-day ? Mon frere arrivera-t-il artjourd'hui 9 
Will the creditors lose much? Les creanciers perdront-ilsbeaucoup 9 
When does the king go to Genoa ? Le roi quand ira-t-il a Genes 9 

TV.— Negatively and Interrogatively, in which case the rules 
of II and III are combined and both are observed : 

Nest-il pas bien aimable 9 Is he not very pleasant ? 

N'avaient-ilspas leurs livres 9 Did they not have their books ? 
Uhomme rfest-ilpas mortel 9 Is not man mortal? 



CHANGES OF TERMINATION. 19 

Ces dames nHront-elles pas Will not these ladies go 

demain ? to-morrow ? 

CHANGES OF TERMINATION. 

Verbs, in their Conjugation, undergo four changes of termination for 
the purpose of expressing, in addition to their general meaning, also 
Number, Person, Time and Mood. 

1. — Number. The French Verb expresses only two Numbers, accord- 
ing as its meaning is connected only with one Person — the Singular, — 
or with more than one person, the Plural. The Dual of Ancient 
Languages has gone out of use. 

2. — Person. The Persons connected with the Verb are : 

1. The first person — the one who speaks. 

2. The second person — the one who is spoken to. 

3. The third person — the one who is spoken of. 

Of these three persons the First and the Second must be present and 
are hence invariably in sight of each other. They show consequently 
whether they are male or female, and the result is that neither the Verb 
nor its Pronoun show any difference of Gender in these two persons. 

1. Je or /'. I; and nous, we. ) , , , /? £ - , 

J ' ' ' } have but one form for men and women, 

2. Tu, ihou ; and vous, you. ) 

Je suis sa mere et tu es son per e. I am her mother and thou art her father. 
Nous autres hommes et vous We men and you women... 
autres femmes. . . 

But the Third Person, the one spoken of, is apt to be absent and 
requires therefore to indicate, by a change of form in the Verb or the 
Pronoun, whether it is Masculine or Feminine. 

3. II, he ; and elle, she. 

i7s, they(M.); and elles, they (F.) 

Lefils oil est-il ? Where is the son ? 

Lafille ou est-elle 9 Where is the daughter ? 

Les soldats sont-ils ici ? Are the soldiers here ? 

Lesjeunes dames oil sont-elles 9 Where are the young ladies ? 

As the French has lost the Third, the Neuter Gender of the Latin, the 
English "it" and the corresponding (Neuter) forms of the Plural 



20 CHANGES OF TERMINATION. 

" they," are translated by il, elle, Us or elles, according to the Gender of 
the noun which they represent. 

IShelice est cassee, elle etait The screw is broken, it (F. ) was too 

trop mince. weak. 

J'aimecemois, ilnous donne I like this month, it (M.) gives us 

tant de fleurs. so many flowers. 

Ces livres a qui sont-ils ? These books, whose are they? (M.) 

Voila des pommeSy elles sont Here are some apples, they (F.) are 

mures. ripe. 

Note.— Originally French showed, like all Ancient Languages, the difference 
of persons in the Verb also, but gradually these terminations were shortened, 
others disappeared, and the result was that many persons sound alike now ; 
e. g. je marche, tu marches, il or elle marche, Us or elles marchent &c. all sound 
alike. Hence has arisen the rule, that all forms of the Verb are accompanied by 
their Pronouns, except only the Infinitive. 

Note.— Originally, moreover, the French, like all ancient people, addressed 
each other by tu with the 2nd person Sing, of the Verb. The strict etiquette of 
the Byzantine Empire first introduced the so-called Pluralis majestatis, consist- 
ing of the use of you, instead of £7iou,with the underlying thought, that he whom 
we thus honor, was, as we call it, "a host in himself." that is: one equal in power 
and wisdom to many. Now French uniformily employs vous with the 2nd p. 
Plural of the Verb in adressing one as well as several persons. 

Vous etes bien aimable, ma chere You are very kind, dear cousin ! 

cousine ! 
Vous etes tous contents, messieurs 9 Gentlemen, are you all satisfied ? 

The Adjective that qualifies vous remains Singular when only one 
is adressed, but becomes Plural, when several are adressed : 

Charles, etes-vous malade ? Charles, are you sick ? 

Mesdames, vous etes les bienvenues. Ladies, you are welcome. 

1. — The First Person Singular, now ending in e in the first Conjuga- 
tion, in s in the other three, in the Present Indie, takes an Acute Accent 
on this e, when followed by je to avoid two mute e in successive syllables . 

Not : Aime-je f But : Aime-je ? Do I love ? 
Not : Trouve-je ? But : Trouve-je ? Do I find ? 

The same rule applies to the 1st person Sing, of the Present Subj. and 
of the Preterite Def. Subj. : 

Puisse-je ! Fusse-je ! Dusse-je ! 

Oh, that I may ! That I were ! Even if I were to !... 



CHANGES OF TERMINATION. 21 

But this new Acute Accent causes a Grave Accent on the preceding 
syllable to disappear : 
Jamene. — Not : Amene-je ? But : Amene-je ? I bring. — Do I bring? 
Jespere. — Not : Espere-je ? But : Espere-je ? I hope. — Do I hope? 

A y in the syllable preceding this Acute Accent softens into i, but re- 
appears, when the Verb is used interrogatively : 

Envoy er ;• J'envoie. — But : Envoy e-je 9 To send : I send. — Do I send ? 
This First Person never had a final s in Old French, which wrote : 

Jaime, je tien, je vol, je vend, etc. I love, I hold, I see, I sell, etc. 

But in the XIV Century a senseless fashion sprang up, to add an 
ungrammatical s to these words, the pretext being a wish for Euphony, 
as this s was the letter of all most frequently carried over to the next 
word, if this began with e or mute h. Thus these words became now : 
Je tiens, je crois, je vois, je vends. 

Although the Classic writers, down to the XVIII Century, wrote cor- 
rectly without s : 

Elle a respecte les jours queje te doi. It has spared the life I owe to thee. 

(Kacine). 

Moreover when the Verb ended in I, the new Is changed, as usual, into x % 

Je veux, jepeux, je vaux, etc. I will, I can, I am worth, etc. 
Finally, this s was added to the First Persons of : 

a. The Present of etre : Je suis, queje sois. 

b. The Imperfect : J avals, je tenais, je savais, je vendais. 

c. The Conditional : J'aurais, je serais, je voudrais, je vendrais, 

d. The Preterite Defin. of the Auxiliaries and of Weak Verbs : 

J'eus, jefus, je tins, je vis, je vendis. 

e. The Imperative of all Verbs, except in the 1st Conjugation : 

(Aime ! va !) Tiens ! fais ! vends ! and a few of the 2nd 
. Conjugation. 

The Pronoun of the First Person je elides the e before Verbs beginning 
with a vowel or mute h. 

Jaime, j'erre, j'insiste, j'honore, I love, I err, I insist, I honour, 
fhesite. I hesitate. 

But it remains unchanged before an aspirate h. 

Je hale je hue, je hurle. I burn, I shout, I howl. 



22 CHANGES OF TERMINATION. 

The Pronouns me, te, le and se are subject to the same rule : 

II m'aime, je Vaime, il Vent. He loves me, I love thee, he had it. 
Elle s' aveugle, Us s' honor ent. She blinds herself , they honour them- 
selves. 

2. — The Second Person Singular invariably ends in s (in x, when it 
used to be Is) : 

Tu as, tu viens, tu crois, tu vends. Thou hast, thou contest, thou 

thinkest, thou sellest. 
Tu peux si tu le veux. Thou canst if thou wilt, 

except in the Imperative, which, although generally the same as the 
2nd Person Present Indie. , often ends in e : 

Aime ! cueille ! souffre ! ouvre ! Love ! gather ! suffer ! open ! 
Travaillc Men ! Work well ! 

The letter s, however, re-appears at the end of the Imperative, when fol 
lowed by en or y : 

Donnes-en deux aux autres ! Give two of them to the others ! 
Va, eueilles-y des fleurs ! Go and gather flowers there ! 

but no such s will be added, if en and y do not belong to the Imperative 
but to the next Verb : 

Va y mettre ordre ! Go and put things in order there ! 

Daigne en agreer tous ! Be pleased to accept all of them ! 

The Third Person Singular long retained the final t which character, 
ised it in Latin, and Old French wrote : 

Hairnet, illeit, ilouit, ilveit. He loves, he reads, he hears, he sees. 

Next, this t dissappeared where it followed mute e and had become 
silent, remaining elsewhere : 

U parle, il aime. — but : H tient. He speaks, he loves — he holds. 

It remains in the two Auxiliaries : quHl ait and quHl soit, but in no 
other Present Subjunctive : 

QuHl cueille, quHl tressaille, qu'il That he gather, tremble, cover ! 
couvre, etc. 

Hence this final t is now omitted in : 

a. The 3rd p. Sing, of Pres. Indie. 1st Conjug. : — II aime. 

b. A few 3rd p. Pres. Ind. 2nd Conjug. : — II cueille, il ouvre, etc. 



CHANGES OF TERMINATION. 23 

c. The 3rd p. Pres. Subj. (exc. ait and soit): — QuHl vienne! 

d. II a, he has ; il va, he goes, the 3rd p. Preter. Def . of 1st 

Conj., and 3rd p. Fut. : — 11 arriva, il arrivera. 

e. After c, d, t. : — It met, il vend, il vainc. 

On the other hand this final t was restored in the XVI Century, to 
remedy the hiatus between a Verb ending in a Vowel and the Pronouns 
il, elle and on, being inserted between two hyphens : 

Qu'a-t-il dit f — A-t-elle change What did he say? — Did she change 

de robe ? her dress? 

Va-t-on le faire ? — Puisse-t-il Are they going to do it ? — I wish 

venir ! he could come ! 

Although the Indef . Pers. Pronoun on always conveys the idea of a 
plurality, it is used with the 3rd p. Sing, of the Verb : 

On dit cela, mats on ne le croit People say so, but they do not 

pas. think so. 

On n'est pas toujours jeune etjolie. We are not forever young and 

pretty. 

4. — The First Person Plural always ends in s, and in the majority of 
cases in ons, except etre which has •nous sommcs (we are), and the 
Preterite Definite, which in all Verbs ends in silent — raesin the 1st Person 
Plural preceded by a vowel with the circumflex accent : 

Nous avons, nous voulions, notes ven- We have, we would, we will 

droits, sell. 

Nous eumes, nous fumes, nousfimes. We had, we were, we did. 

5. — The Second Person Plural, in like manner, always ends in z, in 
the majority of cases in ez (pronounced e), except etre, which has vous 
etes, and the Preter. Def. which in all Verbs ends in silent tes, preceded 
by a Vowel with the Circumflex Accent. 

Vous avez, vous aurez, vous seriez. You have, you will have, you 

should be. 
Vouseutes, vousfutes, vous saludtes. You had, you were, you bowed. 

The two Pronouns nous and vous may represent one or several per- 
sons, also : men or women — the Verb and the Adjective which qualify 
these Pronouns agree with them in the meaning, not in the form. 

Nous sommesvotre bonne amie, We are your good friend, said the 
dit la Reine. Queen. 



24 THE OMISSION OF PRONOUNS. 

Vous e*tes les maitres ici,mes~ Gentlemen, you are the masters here. 

sieurs. 
Le rang ou vous etes elevee. . . The rank in which you were brought up.. . 

Meme, however, remains unchanged with nous and vous, when they 
represent but one person. 

Parlezpour vous-meme, madame. Speak for yourself, madam. 

Nous-meme resteronsici,fit le roi. We will stay here ourselves, said 

the King. 

6. — The Third Person Plural invariably ends in nt : in silent ent in 
all forms except the Future, which ends in ont (pronounced like on): 

Es chantent, Us furent, Us They sing, they were, they would 

iraient. go. 

lis iront et Us Vaimeront. They will go and will love her. 

Except also the three Verbs : Us ont, Us font and Us vont (they have 
they do and they go.) 

THE OMISSION OF PRONOUNS, 

in connection with the Verb, is frequent and of great importance. 
This takes place : 

1. In Mottoes, Devices, and the like : 

Fais ce que dois, advienne que Do your duty, come what may. 

pourra . . . 
Honni soit qui mal y pense ! Shame on him who thinks evil of it ! 

Si ne Vaiplus, qui m'aimera f Who will love me, if I have him 

no longer ? 

2. The Pronoun it, belonging to Impersonal Verbs, is often 

omitted : 

N'en deplaise a Sa Majeste ! May it not displease Your Majesty I 

Entre nous soit dit ! Between us be it said ! 

Que fen semble, Vami ? What do you make of it, my friend? 

JHrai quand bon me semble. I shall go when I like. 

3. When Infinitives are used as logical objects of other Verbs, 

the Pronoun it is often omitted : 
Passe encore de chanter. . . To say nothing of singing— 

A quoi nous sert de V avoir battu 9 What does it profit to have beaten 

him? 

Mieux vaudrait V avoir tue. It would be better to have killed 

him. 



THE AUXILIARY VERBS. 



AVOIR. 



TO HAVE. 



INDICATIVE. 



Present. 

J'ai I have, I do have, 

tu as I am having. 

il {elle or on) a 

nous avons 

vons avez 

Us (or dies) ont. 

Imperfect. 

J'avais I had, I was having, 

tu avals I used to have. 

il avait 
nous avions 
vous aviez 
Us avaient. 

Preterite Definite. 

J 'eus I had. 

tu eus 

il eut 

nous eumes 

vous eutes 

Us eurent. 

Future. 
J 'aural I shall, I will have. 

tu auras 
il aura 
nous aurons 
vous aurez 
Us auront. 



Preterite Indefinite. 
J'ai eu I have had, etc. 

tu as eu 

11 {elle or on) a eu 
nous avons eu 
vous avez eu 
Us (or elles) ont eu 

Pluperfect. 
J'avais eu I had had, etc. 

tu avals eu 
11 avait en 
nous avions eu 
vous avlez eu 
Us avaient eu 

Preterite Anterior. 
J'eus eu I had had. 

tu eus eu 
11 eu t eu 
nous eumes eu 
vous elites eu 
ils eurent eu 

Future Anterior. 
J' aural eu I shall have had. 

tu auras eu 
11 aura eu 
nous aurons eu 
vous aurez eu 
Us auront eu 



26 



THE AUXILIARY VERBS. 



Conditional. 

J'aurais I should, I could, I might 

tu aurais have, etc. 

il aurait 

nous aurions 

vous auriez 

ils auraient. 



Conditional Past. 

J 'aurais eu I should have had. 

tu aurais eu 

il aurait eu 

nous aurions eu 

vous auriez eu 

ils auraient eu% 



SUBJUNCTIVE, 



Quefaie 
que tu aies 
qu'il ait 
que nous ayons 
que vous ayez 
quHls aient. 



Present. 

That I may have 



Preterite Indefinite. 



Quefaie eu 
que tu aies eu 
quHl ait eu 
que nous ayons eu 
que vous ayez eu 
quHls aient eu. 



That I may have 
had. 



Imperative. 



Aie 

{qu'il ait) 

ayons 

ayez 

{quHls aient). 



Have (thou) 
let him have 
let us have 
have (you) 
let them have 8 



Infinitive. 
Avoir. To have. 

Past. 
Avoir eu, To haFe had, 



Preterite Definite. 

Quefeusse That I had or might 

que tu eusses have. 

qu'il eut 

que nous eussiono 

que vouc eussiez 

quHl eussent. 

Preterite Anterior* 

Quefeusse eu That I might have 

que tu eusses eu had. 

quHl eut eu 

que nous eussions eu 

que vous eussiez eu 

quHls eussent eu. 

Participle Present. 

Ayant, Having. 

Past. 
Eu. [Pronounced like u.] Had 
[Eue, f. B.—eus } m. pi. — eues } f . pi.] 

Past Compound. 
Ay ant eu Having had. 



THE AUXILLIARY VERBS. 



27 



Have I? 



Present. 

Ai-je 9 

as-tu 9 

a-t-il (a-t-elle, a-t-ori) 9 

avons-nous 9 

avez-vous 9 

ont-ils (or elles) 9 

Imperfect. 
Avais-je 9 Had I ? did I have ? 



AYOIR. (Interrogatively) . 
INDICATIVE. 

Preterite Indefinite. 
Ai-je eu 9 Have I had ? 



avais-tu 9 
avait-il 9 
avions-nous : 
aviez-vous 9 
avaient-ils 9 



etc. 



Preterite Definite. 



Eus-je 9 
eus-tu 9 
eut-il 9 
eumes-nous 
eutes-vous ? 
eurent-ils ? 



Had I? etc. 



Aurai-je ? 
aur as-tu 9 
aura-t-il ? 
aurons-nous ? 
aurez-vons 9 
auront-ils 9 

Conditional 



Future. 
Shall or will I have ? 



Aurais-je 9 
aurais-tu 9 
aurail-il 9 
aurions-nous ? 
auriez-vous ? 
auraient-ils ? 



Should I have ? 



as-tu eu ? 

a-t-il (or elle or on) eu ? 
avons-nous eu ? 
avez-vous eu ? 
ont-ils (or elles) eu ? 

Pluperfect. 

Avais-je eu 9 Had I had ? 

avais-tu eu f 

avait-il eu ? 

avions-nous eu ? 

aviez-vous eu 9 

avaient-ils eu ? 

Preterite Anterior. 
Eus-je eu 9 Had I had ? 

eus-tu eu ? 
eut-il eu ? 
emnes-nous eu? 
eutes-vous eu ? 
eurent-ils eu ? 

Future Anterior. 
Aurai-je eu 9 Shall I have had ? 
aur as-tu eu ? etc. 

aura-t-il eu ? 
aurons-nous eu ? 
aurez-vous eu? 
auront-ils eu? 

Conditional Past. 
Aurais-je eu 9 Should I have had ? 
aurais-tu eu ? 
aurait-il eu? 
aurions-nous eu ? 
auriez-vous eu ? 
auraient-ils eu ? 



28 



THE AUXILIARY VERBS. 



Present. 
Je rial pas I have not (I do not 
tu rC as pas have, I am not having). 
II (elle or on) n } apas 
nous n'avons pas 
vous n'avezpas 
Us (or elles) n'ont pas. 

Imperfect. 
Jew? avals pas I had not. 

tu rt avals pas 
il n'avalt pas 
nous n'avlons pas 
vous n y avlez pas 
Us rtavalent pas. 

Preterite Definite. 
Je n'euspas I had not. 

tu n'eus pas 
11 n'eut pas 
nous n'eumespas 
vous n'eutes pas 
Us n'eurent pas. 

Future. 

Je rt aural pas I shall not have. 
tun' auras pas 
11 rt aura pas 
nous rtaurons pas 
vous rtaurez pas 
Us n'auront pas. 

Conditional. 
Je rtaurals pas I should not have. 
tu nJaurals pas 
il n'auralt pas 
nous n'aurlonspas 
vous n'aurlezpas 
Us rtauralent pas 



AVOIR. (Negatively). 
INDICATIVE. 

Preterite Indefinite. 
Je n'alpas eu I have not had. 

tu n' as pas eu 
11 (elle or on) n'a pas eu 
nous n'avonspas eu 
vous n 'avez pas eu 
Us (or elles) n'ontpas eu. 
Pluperfect. 
Je ri* avals pas eu I had not had. 
tu n' avals pas eu 
11 n'avalt pas eu 
nous n'avlons pas eu 
vous n' avlez pas eu 
Us rtavalent pas eu. 

Preterite Anterior. 
Je n'eus pas eu I had not had, 

tu n'eus pas eu 
U n'eut pas eu 
nous n'eumespas eu 
vous n'eutes pas eu 
Us n'eurentpas eu. 

Future Anterior. 



Je rt aural pas eu I shall not 

tu n 1 auras pas eu have had. 

II n' aura pas eu 
nous n'aurons pas eu 
vous n'aurez pas eu 
Us n'auront pas eu. 

Conditional Past. 



Je n'auralspas eu 
tu rtauralspas eu 
11 n'auralt pas eu 
nous ri* aurlons pas eu 
vous n'aurlezpas eu 
Us n 1 auralent pas eu. 
Imperative. 

N*ale pas ! Have not (thou) ! 

rtayons yas ! 



I shoul not 
have had. 



n'ayez pas 



Have not (they)! 



THE AUXILIARY VERBS 



29 



Present. 
Queje naiepas That I have not. 
que tu rtaiespas 

quHl (or quelle or qu'ori) rt ait pas 
que nous rtayons pas 
que vous rtayez pas 
qrtils rtaient pas. 

Preterite Definite. 
Que je rteusse pas That I might 
que tu rteusses pas Dot have. 
quHl rt exit pas 
que nous rteussions pas 
que vous rteussiez pas 
qu'ils n' eussent pas. 



SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Preterite Indefinite. 
Que je rt aie pas eu That I have 
que tu rtaies pas eu not had. 

qrtil (or qrtelle or qrt on) rt ait pas eu 
que nous rtayons pas eu 
que vous n'ayez pas eu 
qrt Us n y aient pas eu. 

Preterite Anterior, 
Que je n ' eusse pas eu That I might 
que tu rteusses pas eu not have had. 
qrtil rteut pas eu 
que nous rteussions pas eu 
que vous n'eussiez pas eu 
qrt Us rteussent pas eu 



Infinitive. 

Ne pas avoir. Not to have. 

Participle Present. 
N*ayant pas. Not having. 



Infinitive Past. 
Ne pas avoir eu. Not to have had. 

Participle Past. 
Nayant pas eu. Not having had, 



AYOIR (Negatively and Interrogatively). 
INDICATIVE. 



Present. 

JSPai-je pas 9 Have I not ? 

rtas-tupas? 

rta-t-il (or elle or on) pas ? 

rtavons-nous pas ? 

rtavez-vous pas ? 

riont-ils (or elles) pas ? 

Imperfect. 

iV avais-je pas ? Had I noi ? 

rtavais-tu pas ? 

rtavait-ilpas? 

rt avions-nous pas 9 

rtaviez-vous pas ? 

n'avaient-ilspas ? 



Preterite Indefinite. 

Kai-je pas eu ? Have I not had ? 

rtas-tupas eu? 

rta-t-il (or elle or on) pas eu ? 

rtavons-nous pas eu ? 

rtavez-vous pas eu ? 

rt avaient-ils pas eu? 

Pluperfct. 

N avais-je pas eu ? Had I not had? 
rtavais-tu pas eu? 
rtavait-ilpas eu ? 
rt avions-nous pas eu ? 
rtaviez-vous pas eu ? 
rt avaient-ils pas eu ? 



30 



THE AUXILIARY VERBS. 



Preterite Definite. 
Neus-jepas 9 Had I not ? 

n'eus-tu pas 9 
n'eut-ilpas 9 
n'eumes-nous pas 9 
n y eutes-vous pas 9 
n'eurent-ils pas 9 

Future. 

N'aural-jepas 9 Shall I not have? 
n y auras-tu pas 9 
n y aura-t-ll pas 9 
n' aurons-nous pas 9 
n'aurez-vons pas 9 
n y auront-lls pas 9 

Conditional. 

N*aurais-je pas 9 Should I not 



n y aurais-tu pas 9 
n y aurait-ll pas 9 
n y aurlons-nous pas 9 
n y aurlez-vous pas 9 
n'auraient'ils pas 9 



have? 



Preterite Anterior. 
N'eus-je pas eu 9 Had I not had ? 
n'eus-tupas eu 9 
n'eut-ilpas eu9 
rfeumes-nous pas eu 9 
n y eutes-vous pas eu 9 
n y eurent-lls pas eu 9 

Future Anterior. 

N'aurai-jepas eu9 Shall I not 
n y auras-tu pas eu 9 have had ? 

n y aura-t-il pas eu 9 
n y aurons-nous pas eu 9 
rCaurez-vous pas eu 9 
n y auront-lls pas eu 9 

Conditional 

N y aurais-je pas eu 9 
n y aurals-tu pas eu 9 
n y auralt-ll pas eu 9 
n y aurlons-nous pas eu 9 
n* aurlez-vous pas eu 9 
n y auralent-lls pas eu 9 



Past. 

Should I not 
have had ? 



ETRE. To be. 



I am. 



Present. 

Je suis 

tu es 

il (elle or on) est 

nous sommes 

vous etes 

Us (or elles) sont. 

Imperfect. 

J\etais I was, I used to 

tu etais be, etc. 

il etait 
nous etions 
vous etlez 
Us etalent. 



INDICATIVE. 

Preterite Indefinite. 

J y al ete I have been. 

tu as ete 

il (elle or on) a ete 

nous avons ete 

vous avez ete 

lis (or elles) ont ete. 

Pluferfect. 

J y avals ete I had been. 

tu avals ete 

il avalt ete 

nous avions ete 

vous avlez ete 

Us avalent ete. 



THE AUXILIARY VERBS. 



31 



Future. 

I shall, I will be 



Preterite Definite. 
Jefus I was. 

tu fus 
ilfat 

nous fumes 

vous fides * 

ils furent. 

Je serai 
tu seras 
il sera 
nous serous 
vous serez 
ils seront. 

Conditional. 
Je serais I should, I could be . 

tu serais 
il serait 
nous serious 
vous seriez 
ils seraient. 



Preterite Anterior. 
J'eus ete I had been . 

tu eus ete 
il eut ete 
nous eumes ete 
vous elites ete 
ils eurent ete. 

Future Anterior. 

J'aurai ete I shall have been. 

tu auras ete 

il aura ete 

nous aurons ete 

vous aurez ete 

ils auront ete. 

Conditional Past. 
J y aurais ete I should, I could 



tu aurais ete 
il aurait ete 
nous aurions ete 
vous auriez ete 
ils auraient ete. 



have been. 



SUBJUNCTIVE. 



Present. 



That I be. 



Que je sois 
que tu sois 
qiCil soit 
que nous soyons 
que vous soyez 
quHls soient. 

Imperfect. 

Que je fusse That I niight be. 

que tu fusses 

quHlfut 

que nous fussions 

que vous fussiez 

quHls fussent. 



Preterite Indefinite. 

Que faie ete That I have been. 

que tu aies ete 

qiCil ait ete 

que nous ayons ete 

que vous ayez ete 

quHls aient ete. 

Preterite Anterior. 

Quefeusse ete That I niight have 

que tu eusses ete been. 

qiCil eut ete 

que nous eussions ete 

que vous eussiez ete 

quHls eussent ete. 



32 



THE AUXILIARY VERBS, 



IMPERATIVE. 



Sots! 
soyons ! 
soyez ! 



Be (thou) 



Infinitive Past* 
Avoir etc. To have been. 



Participle Present. 
Etant] Being. 

Participle Past. 
Ete (1). Been. 

(D Ete is unchangeable. 



Present. 

Suis-je ? 

es-tu? 

est-il (elle or on) ? 

sommes-nous f 

etes-vous ? 

sont'ils (or elles) f 

Imperfect. 

Etais-je? Was I? etc. 

etais-tu ? 

etait-il ? 

etions-nous ? 

etiez-vous ? 

etaient-ils f 

Preterite Definite. 

Fus-je? Was I? 

fus-tu ? 

fut-il? 

fumes-nous ? 

futes-vous ? 

furent-ils ? 



E T R E • (Interrogatively). 
INDICATIVE. 

Preterite Indefinite. 
Am I ? Ai-je ete ? Have I been? 



Future, 



Serai-je ? 
seras-tu ? 
sera-t-il ? 
serons-nous ? 
serez-vous ? 
seront-ils? 



ShaU I bej? 



as-tu ete f 
a-t-il (or elle) ete ? 
avons-nous ete ? 
avez-vous ete ? 
ont-ils (or elles) ete ? 

Pluperfct. 

Avais-je ete f Had I been ? 

avais-tu ete ? 

avait-il ete ? 

avions-nous ete f 

aviez-vous ete f 

avaient-ils ete ? 

Preterite Anterior. 

Eus-je ete ? Had I been ? 

ens-tu ete ? 

eut-il ete ? 

eumes -nous ete f 

eutes-vous ete ? 

eurent-ils ete ? 

Future Anterior. 
Aurai-je ete ? Shall I have been ? 
auras-tu ete f 
aura-t-il ete 9 
aurons-nous ete ? 
aurez-vous ete f 
auront-ils ete ? 



Conditional. 

Serais-je 9 Should I be? 

serais-tu 9 

serait-il 9 

serions-nous 9 

seriez-vous 9 

seraient-ils 9 



THE AUXILLIARY VERBS. 

Conditional Past. 



33 



Aurais-je ete 9 
aurais-tu ete 9 
aurait-il ete 9 
aurions-nons ete 9 
auriez-vous ete 9 
auraient-ils ete 9 



Should I have 
been? 



ETRE (Negatively). 



INDICATIVE. 



Present, 

Je ne suispas 

tu n'es pas 

il ri 'est pas 

nous ne sommes pas 

vous netes pas 

Us ne sont pas. 

Imperfect. 

Je n'etais pas 
tu n'etais pas 
il n'etait pas 
nous n'etions pas 
vous rtetiez pas 
Us rfetaient pas. 



Preterite Definite, 



I am not. 



I was not. 



Je ne fus pas 
tu ne fus pas 
il ne fut pas 
nous nef times pas 
vous ne futes pas 
Us ne furent pas. 



I was not . 



Preterite Indefinite. 

Je n'ai pas ete I have not been. 

tu rfas pas ete 

il rta pas ete 

nous rtavons pas ete 

vous rtavez pas ete 

Us rtont pas ete. 

Pluperfect. 

Je rtavais pas ete I had not been. 

tu n'avais pas ete 

il n'avait pas ete 

nous rtavions pas ete 

vous n'aviez pas ete 

Us rtavaient pas ete. 

Preterite Anterior. 

Je n'eus pas ete I had not been. 

tu n'eus pas ete 

il n'eut pas ete 

nous neumespas ete 

vous n'eiitespas ete 

Us rfeurent pas ete. 



34 



THE AUXILIARY VERBS. 



Future. 

Je ne serai pas I shall not be. 

tu ne seraspas 

il ne sera pas 

nous ne serous pas 

vous ne serezpas 

Us ne seront pas. 

Conditional. 

Je ne serais pas I should not be, 

tu ne serais pas 

il ne serait pas 

nous ne serions pas 

vous ne seriez pas 

Us ne seraient pas. 



Future Anterior. 
Je rtauraipas ete I shall not 
tu rt auras pas ete have been. 

il naura pas ete 
nous n'aurons pas ete 
vous n'aurez pas ete 
Us n'auront pas ete. 

Conditional Past. 
Je n'aurais pas ete I should not 
tu n'aurais pas ete have been. 

il n'aurait pas ete 
nous rtaurionspas ete 
vous n'auriez pas ete 
Us n'auraient pas ete. 



SUBJUNCTIVE. 



Present. 
Queje ne soispas That I be not. 
que tu ne soispas 
quHl ne soit pas 
que nous ne soyons pas 
que vous ne soy ez pas 
quHls ne soientpas. 

Preterite Definite. 

Que je ne fusse pas That I were 

que tu ne fusses pas not. 

quHl nefut pas 

que nous ne fussions pas 

que vous nefussiez pas 

qu'ils ne fussent pas. 

Imperative. 

Ne sois pas ! Be not ! (thou) 

ne soyons pas ! 

ne soyez pas ! Be not ! (you). 

Participle Present. 
Netant pas. Not being. 



Preterite Indefinite. 
Que je n'aie pas ete That I have 
que tu naiespas ete not been. 

quHl n ait pas ete 
que nous n'ayonspas ete 
que vous n'ayez pas ete 
quHls n'aient pas ete. 

Preterite Anterior. 
Queje n y eussepas ete That I had 
que tu n'eussespas ete not been. 
quHl n y eut pas ete 
que nous n y eussionspas ete 
que vous n y eussiez pas ete 
qu'ils n'eussent pas ete. 

Infinitive. 
Nepas etre. Not to be. 

Infinitive Past. 
Nepas avoir ete. Not to have been. 

Participle Past. 
Nay ant pas ete. Not having been. 



THE AUXILIARY VERBS. 



35 



ETRE. (Negatively and Interrogatively). 



Present. 

Ne suis-je pas 9 Am I not ? 

ries-tupas? 

n' est -Upas ? 

ne sommes-nous pas ? 

n 'etes-voas pas 9 

ne sont-ils pas ? 

Imperfect. 

N'etais-jepas 9 Was I not ? 

n } etais-tu pas 9 

rtetait-il pas 9 

n'et ions-nous pas ? 

rteties-vous pas ? 

n 'etaient-ils pas ? 



Preterite 



Definite. 

Was I not ? 



Ne fus-je pas ? 
ne fus-tu pas ? 
ne fid Upas ? 
ne fumes-nous pas ? 
nefutes-vous pas ? 
ne furent-ils pas ? 

Future. 

Ne serai-je pas ? Shall I not be? 

ne seras-tu pas ? 

ne sera-t-il pas 9 

ne serons-nous pas ? 

ne serez-vous pas f 

ne seront-ils pas 9 

Conditional. 
Ne serais-je pas 9 Should I not be ? 
ne serais-tu pas 9 
ne serait-U pas 9 
ne ser ions-nous pas 9 
ne seriez-vous pas 9 
ne seraient-Us pas ? 



Preterite Indefinite. 

Nai-jepas ete 9 Have I not been ? 
n y as-tu pas ete 9 
rfa-t-il pas ete ? 
Savons-nous pas ete 9 
n'avez-vous pas ete ? 
uont-ils pas ete ? 

Pluperfct. 

N avais-je pas ete ? Had I not 
n'avais-tupas ete 9 been? 
navait-ilpas ete 9 
n J avions-nous pas ete 9 
n'aviez-vous pas ete 9 
n'avaient-ils pas ete ? 

Preterite Anterior, 

Neus-je pas ete 9 Had I not been ? 

n'eus-tupas ete ? 

n'eut-ilpas ete 9 

n' eumes-nous pas ete 9 

n'eutes-vous pas ete ? 

n'eurent-ilspas ete 9 

Future Anterior. 

Naurai-je pas ete 9 Shall I not 

n'auras-tu pas ete 9 have been ? 
n'aura-t-ilpas ete 9 
n'aurons-nous pas ete 9 
n'aurez-vous pas ete ? 
n'auront-ils pas ete 9 

Conditional Past. 

Naurais-jepas ete f Should I not 
n'aurais-tu pas ete ? have been ? 
n'aurait-il pas ete 9 
n'aurions-nous pas ete 9 
n'aurier-vous pas ete 9 
ri ' auraient-ils pas ete 9 



36 



ON THE USE OF AUXILIABIES WITH 
OTHEE VEEBS. 

1, — Active Verbs form their Compound Tenses with the aid of avoir , 
except 241 which use etre, being essentially Pronominal and hence 
follow the example of all Pronominal Verbs; hence: 

2. — All Pronominal Verbs form their Compound Tenses by means 
of etre. 

3. — Neuter Verbs are conjugated with avoir, as long as they express 
action, a small number only with etre, e. g. alter, arriver, deceder, 
eclore, entrer, mourir, naitre, partir, tomber and venir, with a few 
others . 

4. — Some Neuter Verbs, however, take sometimes avoir and at other 
times etre, according to their meaning which varies. They are the 
following : 



Aborder 


to land. 


embellir 


to embellish. 


Accoueher 


— be confined. 


empirer 


— grow worse. 


Accourir 


— run up. 


entrer 


— enter. 


Aecroitre 


— increase. 


expirer 


— expire. 


Apparaitre 


— appear. 


grandir 


— rise. 


Cesser 


— cease. 


monter 


— ascend. 


Changer 


— change. 


passer 


— pass. 


Convenir 


— agree. 


perir 


— perish. 


Croitre 


— grow. 


rajeunir 


— grow young. 


Decamper 


— decamp. 


redescendre 


— descend again. 


Deehoir 


— fall off. 


remonter 


— ascend again. 


Decroitre 


— decrease. 


rentrer 


— enter again. 


Degenerer 


— degenerate*. 


repasser 


— mend. 


Demeurer 


— remain. 


ressortir 


— come out again, 


Descendre 


— descend. 


rester 


— remain. 


Disparaitre 


— disappear. 


resulter 


— result. 


Echapper 


— escape. 


sortir 


— go out. 


Echouer 


— fail. 


vieillir 


— grow old. 



E. g. Nous avons account, quand 
on a sonne. 

Je suis accoiiru a son secours. 

Les orages out cesse de gronder. 

Les fetes de Dieu sont cessees. 



We have come up when they rang 
the bell. 

I have hastened up to his assistance 

The storms have ceased to roar. 

The festivals of God are at an end. 



ON THE USE OF AUXILIARIES WITH OTHER VERBS. 37 

La riviere a cru d'un metre en The river rose a metre in two days, 

deux jours. 

Depuis deux jours la riviere est For two days the river has been 

crue. rising. 

Elle a demeure six mois a Anvers. She lived six months in Antwerp. 

II est demeure a Berlin pour ses He remained in Berlin for his 

etudes. studies. 

Get homme a change de visage. This man's face has changed. 

It est change a ne plus le recon- He is so changed that we know 

naitre. him no longer. 

II a vieilli en peu de temps. He has aged in a short time. 

Je sens que je suis bien vieilli. I feel that I have grown much 

older. 

Le thermometre a descendu de The thermometer has fallen four 

quatre degres... degrees. 

11 y a une heure que je suis des- An hour ago I came down stairs. 

cendu. 

La procession a passe sous mes The procession went by under my 

f entires. windows. 

Est-ce que toute la procession est Has the whole procession gone by ? 

passee ? 

5o — Passive Verbs are formed by the use of etre with the Participle 
Past of the verb, e. g. 

The city is taken and the war is La ville est prise et la guerre est 

ended. finie. 

We shall all be punished for our Nous serons tous punis pour nos 

sins. peches. 

6. — Impersonal Verbs generally form their Compound Tenses by the 
aid of avoir — a few only using etre, e. g. 

II a neige ce matin et il va neiger It snowed thi3 morning and it will 

encore. snow again. 

11 est arrive un grand malheur au A great misfortune has befallen the 

pays. country. 



It must be borne in mind that while the Auxiliaries avoir and e*tre 
may also be used as Independent Verbs, they cannot be used as in 
English as substitutes for other Verbs, but the verb itself must be 
repeated, e. g. 



38 ON THE USE OF AUXILIARIES WITH OTHER VERBS. 



Have you dined ? Yes, I have. 
Are they gone ? Yes, they are. 
Has he studied ? Yes, he has. 



Avez-vous dine 9 Not : Oui, fai, 

but : Oui, fai dine. 
Sont-ils partis? Not : Oui, Us 

sont, but: Oui, Us sont partis. 
A-t-il etudie 9 Oui, il a etudie. 



It must also be remembered that the English did is intranslatable 
into French, being in fact a mere sign of the Past Tense of another 
verb in colloquial intercourse. In French the Verb itself is here also 
repeated, e. g. 



Did you ring? Yes, I did. No, I 

did not. 
Did they read? Yes, they did. 

No, they did not. 
Did he not speak? Yes, he did. 
Did she not sing ? No, she did not. 



Avez-vous sonne 9 Oui, fai sonne. 

Non, je rtai pas sonne. 
Ont-ils lu 9 Oui, Us ont lu. Non> 

Us rt ont pas lu. 
1ST a-t-il pas parle ? Si* il a parte 
N'a-t-elle pas chante 9 Non, elle 

n'a pas chante. 



♦Yes, in answer to negative Questions is si fait ©r simply si. 

When the Verb to be is, in English, employed without a Participle 
Past, the Verb must, in French, be again repeated, or the personal 
pronoun, le } la or les, according to the sense, is added to etre, e. g. : 

Est-il ch&z lui 9 Oui, il Vest. 
Etait-elle endormie 9 Oui, elle 

etait endormie. 
A-t-il ete bien instruit 9 Oui, il 

la ete. 
N'etes-vous pas bien fatigue ? Si y 

jo le suis. 
Etes-vous la mariee9 0ui,je la suis. 



Is he at Lome ? Yes, he is. 
Was she asleep ? Yes, she was. 

Has he been well taught? Yes, he 

has been. 
Are you not very tired? Yes, I 

am. 
Are you the bride ? Yes, I am. 



The very common use of the Verb to be in English, with the 
Participle Present (I am reading, they were running, etc.) is unknown in 
French. The Simple Tense (I read, they ran) can alone be used, e. g. 



I was speaking to your friend, 

when you came in. 
They were dancing on the green. 
What were they doing when you 

saw them ? 



Je parlais a votre ami quand vous 

entrdteSo 
lis dansaient sur la pelouse. 
Que faisaient-ils quana vous les 

vites 9 



TERMINATIONS OF MODEL VERBS. 



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41 



MODELS OF THE CONJUGATION OF VEKBS. 



French Verbs are divided into four Conjugations, distinguished by 
the termination of the Infinitive Mood : 

The first conjugation ends in er, as donner, to give. 

second ir, finir, to finish. 

third olr, recevoir, to receive. 

fourth re, vendre, to sell. 

The first conjugation has one model verb, the second has four, the 
third one, and the fourth four. A verb is said to be regular, when it is 
conjugated like one of these ten verbs. 

103.-MODEL VERB OF THE FIRST CONJUGATION. 

(The First Conjugation includes about 5,000 verbs conjugated like 
donner.) 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present. — Donner, to give. 
Past. — Avoir donne, to have given . 

PAETICIPLES. 
Present. — Donnant, giving. 

Past. — Donne, given. Ay ant donne, having given. 
Future. — Devant donner, about to give. 

INDICATIVF. 

Present. 

Je donne, I give. Nous donnons, we give. 

Tu donnes, thou givest. Vous donnez, you give. 

II donne, he gives. lis donnent, they give. 

1 04 i — Imperfect. 
Je donnais, I was giving. Nous donnions, we were giving. 

Tu donnais, thou wast giving. Vous donniez, you were giving. 

II donnait, he was giving. lis donnaient, they were giving. 



4g MODEL OF THE CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 

COMPOUND TENSES. 

Preterite Indefinite. 105. — Pluperfect. 

J'ai donne, I have given, etc. J" avals donne, I had given, etc. 

Preterite Definite. 

Je donnai, I gave. Nous donndmes, we gave. 

Tu donnas, thou gavest. Vous donn&tes, you gave. 

11 donna, he gave. lis donnerent, they gave. 

Future. 

Je donnerai, I shall give. Nous donnerons, we shall give. 

Tu donneras, thou wilt give. Vous donnerez, you will give. 

II donnera, he will give. lis donneront, they will give. 

Preterite Anterior. Future Anterior! 

J'eus donne, I had given, etc. J'aurai donne, I shall have given, 

etc. 

CONDITIONAL. 
Present. 

Je donnerais, I should give. Nous donnerions, we should give. 

Tu donnerais, thou wouldst give. Vous donneriez, you would give. 
U donnerait, he would give. lis donneraient, they would give. 

Past. 

J'aurais donne, 1 should have Nous aurions donne, we should 

given. have given. 

Tu aurais donne, thou wouldst Vous auriez donne, you would 

have given. have given. 

H aurait donne, he would have Us auraient donne, they would 

given. have given. 

IMPERATIVE. 

Donnons, let us give. 
Donne, give (thou). Donnez, give (ye). 

QuHl donne, let him give. QuHls donnent, let them give. 



MODEL OF THE CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 43 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 
Present. 

Queje donne, that I may give. Que nous donnions, that we may 

give. 
Que tu donnes, that thou mayest Que vous donniez, that you may 

give. give. 

Qu'il donne, that he may give. QuHls donnent, that they may 

give. 

Preterite Definite. 

Que je donnasse, that I might Que nous donnassions, that we 

give. might give. 

Que tu donnasses, that thou Que vous donnassiez, that you 

mightest give. might give . 

QuHl donndt, that he might give. QuHls donnassent, that they might 

give. 

Preterite Indefinite. 
Que faie donne, that I may have given, etc. 

Pluperfect. 
Quefeusse donne, that I might have given, etc. 

MODEL TERES OF THE SECOND CONJUGATION. 

The Second Conjugation is divided into four classes. Their model 
verbs are : 

1. Finir, to finish. 2. Servir, to serve. 3. Ouvrir, to open* 
4. Tenir, to hold. 

The first class consists of about 300 verbs. 

The second class consists of the verbs servir, to serve; sentir, to feel; 
sortir, to go out ; mentir, to lie ; dormir i to sleep ; partir, to set out ; se 
repentir } to repent, and their derivatives, such as desservir, etc. 

The third consists of the verbs ouvrir , to open ; couvrir, to cover ; 
offrir, to offer ; souffrir, to suffer, and their derivatives. 

The fourth consists of the verbs tenir, to hold ; venir, to come, and 
their derivatives. 



44 



MODEL OF THE CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 



l.—FINIR. 

INFINITIVE. 
Present. — Finir, to finish. Past. — Avoir fini, to have finished. 

PARTICIPLES, 

Present.— Finissant, finishing. 

Past. — Fini, finished. Ay ant fini, having finished. 

Future. — Devantfinir, about to finish. 





INDICATIVE. 






Present. 


Preterite Definite. 




I finish. 




I finished. 


Je finis. 
Tu finis, 
Jlfinit. 


Nous finissons. 
Vous finissez. 
lis finis sent. 


J e finis, 
Tu finis, 
Ufinit. 


Nous finimes 
Vous finites, 
lis finirent . 



Imperfect. 

I was finishing . 

Je finissais . Nous finissions , 
Tufinissais. Vous finissiez* 
Ufinissait. IlsfinissaineL 

Preterite Indefinite. 

I have finished. 

Jaifini, etc. 

Pluperfect. 

I had finished. 

Javais fini, etc. 



Future . 

I shall finish. 

Je finirai. Nous ftnirons. 

Tu finiras, Vous finirez . 

II finii d. lis finiron t. 

Preterite Anterior. 
I had finished. 
J *eus fini, etc. 

Future Anteriok. 
I shall have finished . 
Jauraifini, etc. 



CONDITIONAL. 

Present. 

I should finish. 

Je finirais . Nous finirions, 
Tufinirais, Vousfiniriez, 
II finirait. Us finiraient . 



SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present. 

That I may finish. 

Qzce je finisse , Que nous finissions* 
Que tu finis ses . Que vous finissiez, 
QuHl finisse , Qu" Us fi. nissent. 



MODEL OF THE CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 
Imperative. Preterite Definite. 



45 



Finish (thou). That I might finish. 

Finissons. Que je finisse. Que nous flnissions. 

Finis. Finissez. Que tufinisses. Que vous finissiez* 

QiCil finisse. QiC Us finissent. QuHlfinit. QuHls finissent. 



Past Cond . 

I should have 
finished. 

J'aurais fini, etc. 



Pret. Sub. 

That I may have 
finished. 

Que faie ftni, etc. 



Pluperfect Subj. 

That I might have 
finished. 

Que feussefini, etc. 



2.-SERVIB. 



INFINITIVE. 
Present. — Servir, to serve. Past. — Avoir servi, to have served, 

PAETICIPLES. 

Present. — Servant, serving. 

Past. — Servi, served. Ay ant servi, having served. 

Future. — Devant servir, about to serve. 

INDICATIVE. 

Present. Preterite Definite. 

I serve. I served. 

Je sers. Nous servons. Je servis. Nous servfmes, 

Tu sers. Vous servez. Tu servis. Vous servites. 

II sert. lis servent. II servit. Us servirent % 



Imperfect. 

I was serving. 

Je servais. Nous servions. 

Tu servais. Vous serviez. 

U servait. lis servaient* 

Preterite Indefinite. 
I have served. 
J'ai servi, etc. 



Future. 

I shall serve. 

Je servirai. Nous servirons* 

Tu servir as. Vous servir ez. 

11 servir a. lis servir ont. 

Preterite Anterior. 
I had served. 
Jeus servi, etc. 



46 



MODEL OF THE CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 



Pluperfect. 
I had served. 
J' avals servi, etc. 

CONDITIONAL. 

Present. 

I should serve. 

Je servirais. Nous servirions. 
Tu servirais. Vous serviriez. 
II servirait. lis serviraient. 



Future Anterior. 
I shall have served. 
J'aurai servi , etc. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present. 

That I may serve. 

Que je serve. Que nous servions. 
Que tu serves. Que vous serviez % 
QiCil serve. QiCils servent. 



past. 
I should have served. 
J'aurais servi, etc. 



IMPERATIVE. 

Serve (thou). 

Servons. 
Sers. Servez. 



Preterite Definite. 

That I might serve. 

Que je servisse. Que nous servissions. 
Que tu servisses. Que vous servissiez* 
Qu'il servit. QuHls servissent. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Pret. Indef. Pluperfect. 

That I may have That I might have 
served. served . 



QiCil serve. Qu'ils servenU Que j'aie servi, etc. Que feusse servi, etc, 

Note. — The v of the verbal root serv is omitted in the singular of 
the Indicative and Imperative. The same with t and m of sentir, sortir, 
dormir, partir, se repentir, and their derivatives. 



3.— OUYR1R. 

INFINITIVE. 

Present. — Ouvrir, to open. 

Past. — Avoir ouvert, to have opened. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present. --Ouvrant, opening. 

Past. — Ouvert, opened. Ay ant ouvert, having opened , 

Future — Devant ouvrir, about to open. 



MODEL OF THE CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 



4T 



INDICATIVE. 



<T ouvre. 
Tit ouvres. 
II ouvre % 



Present. 

I open. 

Nous ouvrons, 
Vous ouvrez. 
Us ouvrent. 



Imperfect, 

I was opening. 

J'ouvrais. Nous ouvrions. 

Tn ouvruiSm Vous ouvriez. 

Ii ouvrait. Us ouvraient. 

Preterite Indefinite. 
I have opened. 
J'ai ouverty etc. 

Pluperfect. 
I had opened. 
J" avals ouverty etc. 

CONDITIONAL. 

Present. 
I should open . 

tPoavriraiSm Nous ouvririons, 
Tu ouvrirais. Vous ouvririez. 
II ouvrirait. lis ouvriraient. 



Past. 

I should have opened. 
J'aurais ouvert, etc. 



Imperative. 
Open (thou). 



Preterite Definite, 

I opened. 

J'ouvris. Nous ouvrimes. 

Tu ouvris. Vous ouvrites. 

H ouvrit. lis ouvrirent. 

Future. 

I shall open. 

J'ouvrirai. Nous ouvrirons. 

Tu ouvriras. Vous ouvrirez. 

H ouvrira. Us ouvriront. 

Preterite Anterior. 
I had opened. 
J'eus ouvert, etc. 

Future Anterior. 
I shall have opene 
*Taurai ouvert, etc. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present. 
That I may open. 

Que f ouvre. Que nous ouvrions. 
Que tu ouvres. Que vous ouvriez. 
Qu'il ouvre. QuHls ouvrent. 



Preterite Definitf. 

That I might open. 

Quefouvrisse. Que nous ouvrissions* 
Que tu ouvrisses. Que vous ouvrissiez. 
Qu'il ouvrit. QuHls ouvrissent. 



Ouvre. 



Ouvrons 
Ouvrez. 



Pret. Indef. 

That I may have 
opened. 

Que fate ouvert, etc. 



Pluperfect. 

That I might have 
opened. 

Quefeusse ouvert, etc. 



QuHl ouvre. QiCils ouvrent. 



48 



MODEL OF THE CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 



4.—TENIE. 

INFINITIVE. 
Present. — Tenir, to hold. Past. — Avoir tenu, to have held* 

PAETICIPLES. 

Present. — Tenant, holding. 

Past. — Tenu, held. Ayant tenu f having held. 

Future. — Devant tenir, about to hold. 





INDICATIVE. 






Present. 


Preterite Definite. 




I hold. 




I held. 


Je Hens. 


Nous tenons. 


Je tins. 


Nous tinmei 


Tu tiens. 


Voas tenez. 


Tu tins. 


Vous tintes. 


It tient. 


lis tiennenf. 


B tint. 


lis tinrent* 



Imperfect. 

I was holding. 

Je tenais. Nous tenions. 

Tu tenais. Vous teniez. 

11 tenait. Us tenaient. 

Preterite Indefinite 
I have held. 
J'ai tenu, etc. 

Pluperfect. 
I had held. 
J'avais tenu, etc. 

CONDITIONAL. 

Present. 

I should hold. 

Je tiendrais. Nous tiendrions. 
Tu tiendrais. Vous tiendriez. 
11 tiendrait. lis tiendraient. 



Future. 

I shall hold. 

Je tiendrai. Nous tiendrons* 

Tu tiendras. Vous tiendrez. 

B tiendra. lis tiendront* 

Preterite Anterior. 
I had held. 
feus tenu, etc. 

Future Anterior. 
I shall have held. 
J' aural tenu, etc. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present. 

That I may hold. 

Queje tienne. Que nous tenions* 
Que tu tiennes. Que nous teniez. 
QuHl tienne. Quils tiennent* 



MODEL OF THE CONJUGATION OF VERBS 49 

Past. Preterite Definite. 

I should have held. That I might hold. 

iPaurais tenii, etc. Que je tins se. Que nous Hussions* 

Que tu tinsses. Que vous tinssiez. 
Qu'il tint. Qiiils tinssent. 

Imperative. Preterite Indefinite. 

Hold (thou). That I may have held. 

Tiens. Que fate tenr*, etc. 



Qu'il tienne 
Tenons. 



Pluperfect. 



Tenez. That I might have held, 

QuHls tiennent. Quefeusse tenu, etc. 



MODEL VERBS OF THE THIRD CONJUGATION. 

The third conjugation consists of the verbs recevoir, to receive; perce- 
voir, to collect (rents, taxes, income); apercevoir, to perceive; devoir, to 
owe; redevoir, to owe still; concevoir, to conceive; decevoir, to deceive* 
sill conjugated alike. 

KECEVOIfi. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present. — Recevoir, to receive. 
Past. — Avoir regit, to have received. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present. — Recevant, receiving. 

Past. — Recu, received. Ay ant regu, having received. 

Future. — Devant recevoir, about to receive. 

INDICATIVE. 

Present. Preterite Definite. 

I receive. I received. 

Je regois. Nous recevons, Je regit s. Nous regumes. 

Tu regois. Vous recevez. Tu regus. Vous regutes. 

H regoit. Rs regoivent. II regut. lis regurent. 



50 



MODEL OF THE CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 



Imperfect. 
I was receiving. 
Je recevais. Nous recevions. 



Tu recevais. 
II recevait. 



Vous receviez. 
lis recevaient. 



Future. 
I shall receive. 



Je recevrai. 
Tu recevras. 
II recevra. 



Nous recevrons. 
Vous recevrez. 
lis recevront. 



Preterite Indefinite. 

I have received. 

J'ai regit, etc. 

* 
Pluperfect. 

I had received. 

J avals regu, etc. 



Preterite Anterior. 
I had received. 
J'eus regit, etc. 

Future Anterior. 
I shall have received. 
J*aurai regu, etc. 



CONDITIONAL. 

Present. 
I should receive. 



SUBJUNCTIVE, 
Present. 



That I may receive. 

Jerecevrais. Nous recevrions. Que je regoive . Que nous recevions. 
Tu recevrais. Vous recevriez. Que turegoives. Que vous receviez. 
U recevrait. lis recevraient. QuHl regoive. QiCils regoivent* 



Past. 
I should have received. 



J'aurais regu, etc. 



Imperative. 

Receive (thou\ 

Regois. 

QuHl regoive. 

Recevons. 

Recevez. 

Qu'ils regoivent. 



Preterite Definite. 

That I might receive. 

Que je regusse . Que nous regussions* 
Que tu regnsses. Que vous regussiez . 
QuHlregut. Qu'ils regussent* 

Preterite Indefinite. 
That I may have received. 
Que j'aie regu, etc. 

Pluperfect. 
That I might have received* 
Quefeusse regu, etc. 



MODEL OF THE CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 



51 



MODEL YERBS OF THE FOURTH CONJUGATION. 

The fourth conjugation is divided into four classes : 
The first ends in ndre, rdre (not preceded by i), as vendre, to sell ; 
perdre, to lose. 

The second ends in aitre, oitre, as paraitre, to appear ; croitre, to 
grow. 

The third ends in uire, as reduire, to reduce. 

The fourth ends in indre, as plaindre, to pity. 



1.— VENDUE. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Present. — Vendre, to sell. Past. — Avoir vendu, to have sold 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present. — Vendant, selling. 

Past. — Vendu, sold. Ayant vendu, having sold. 

Future. — Devant vendre, about to sell. 



Je vends . 
Ta vends. 
II vend. 



Present. 

I sell. 

Nous vendons, 
Vons vendez. 
lis vendent . 



INDICATIVE. 

Preterite Definite. 

I sold. 

Je vendis. Nous vendtmes. 



Tu vendis. 
U vend it. 



Vows vendites. 
lis vendlrent. 



Imperfect. 

I was selling. 

Jevendais. Nous vendions. 
Tu vendais. Vous vendiez. 
11 vendalt. lis vendaient . 



Future. 

I shall sell. 

Je vendrai. Nous vendrons. 
Tu vendras. Vous vendrez. 
Ilvendra. lis vend ront. 



Preterite Indefinite, 
I have sold. 
J'ai vendu, etc. 



Preterite Anterior. 
I had sold. 
J'eus vendu, etc. 



52 



MODEL OF THE CONJUGATION O VERBS. 



Pluperfect. 
I had sold. 
J } avals vendu, etc. 



Future Anterior. 
I shall have sold. 
fTaurai vendu, etc. 



CONDITIONAL. 

Present. 

I should sell. 

Je vendrais. Nous vendrions. 
Tuvendrais Vous vendriez. 
U vendrait. lis vendraient. 



Past. 
I should have sold. 
J'aurais vendu. etc. 



Imperative. 

Sell (thou). 

Vends* 
Qu'il vende. 
Vendons. 
Vendez. 
QuHls vendent. 



SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present. 

That I may sell. 

Que je vende. Que nous vendions. 
Que tu vende s. Que vous vendiez, 
QuHl vende. QuHls vendent. 



Preterite Definite. 

That I might sell. 

Que je vendisse. Que nous vendissions , 
Quetuvendisses. Que vous vendissiez . 
QuHl vendit. QuHls vendissent. 

Preterite Indefinite. 

That I may have sold. 
Quej'aie vendu, etc. 

Pluperfect. 

That I might have sold, 
Quefeusse vendu, etc. 



2.—FABAITRE. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present.— Paraitre, to appear. 
Paft. — Avoir paru, to have appeared. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present. —Paraissant, appearing. 

Past.— Paru, appeared. Ayant paru, having appeared. 

Future.— Devant parait re, about to appear. 



MODEL OF THE CONJUGATION OF VERBS, 



53 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 



Jeparais. 
Tu parais. 
B par ait. 



Present. 

I appear. 

Nous paraissons. 
Vous paraissez. 
Bs paraissent. 

Imperfect. 



I was appearing. 



Preterite Definite. 

I appeared. 

Jeparus. Nousparumes. 
Tu parus. Vous parutes. 
B parut. Bs parurent. 

Future. 
I shall appear, 



ippeaxing. ± snail appear. 

Jeparaissais. Nous paraissions. Jeparaitrai. Nous par ait rons, 
Tuparaissals. Vous par aissiez. Tuparaitras. Vous paraitrez. 
Bparaissait. Bs paraissaient* Bparaitra. Bs paraitront. 



Preterite Indefinite. 
I have appeared. 
J'aiparu, etc. 



Pluperfect. 
I had appeared. 
J'avaisparu, etc. 



Preterite Anterior. 
I had appeared. 
J'eus paru y etc. 

CONDITIONAL. 

Present. 
I should appear. 

Je paraitrais. 
Tuparaitrais. 
Bparaitrait. 
Nous paraitrions, 
Vous paraitriez. 
Bs paraitraient. 

Past. 
I should have appeared. 
J' aurais paru, etc. 



Future Anterior. 
I shall have appeared. 
J'auraiparu, etc. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present. 
That I may appear. 

Que je paraisse. 
Que tu paraisses. 
QxCil paraisse. 
Que nous paraissions. 
Que vous par aissiez. 
QuHls paraissent. 

Preterite Definite. 

That I might appear. 

Quejeparusse. Que nous parus sions* 
Que tu parti sses. Que vous parussiez* 
Qu'il parut. Qu'ilsparussent. 



54 



MODEL OF THE CONJUGATION OF VERBS, 



Imperative. 

Appear (thou). 

Parais. 

QuHl paraisse* 

Paraissons. 

Paraissez. 

Qu'ils paraissent. 



Preterite Indefinite. 
That I may have appeared. 
Quefaieparu. 

Pluperfect. 
That I might have appeared. 
Quefeusse paru. 



INFINITIVE. 

Present. — Reduire, to reduce. 
Past. — Avoir reduit, to have reduced, 

PAETICIPLES. 

Present. — Reduisant, reducing. 

Past. — Reduit , reduced. 'Ay ant reduit, having reduced* 

Future* — Devant reduire, about to reduce. 



Je reduis. 
Tu reduis, 
11 reduit. 



Present. 

I reduce. 

Nous reduisons* 
Vous reduisez. 
Rs reduisent. 



INDICATIVE. 

Preterite Definite. 

I reduced. 

Je reduisis. Nous reduisimes. 
Tu reduisis. Vous reduisites* 
M reduisit. lis reduisirent. 



Imperfect. 

I was reducing. 

Je reduisais. Nous reduisions. 
Tureduisais* Vous reduisiez. 
11 reduisait. Rs reduisaient. 



Future. 

I shall reduce. 

Je reduirai. Nous reduirons* 
Tu reduiras. Vous reduirez. 
II reduira. lis reduiront. 



Preterite Indefinite. 
I have reduced. 
J'ai reduit, etc. 



Preterite Anterior. 
I had reduced. 
J'eus reduit, etc. 



MODEL OF THE CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 



55 



Pluperfect. 
I had reduced. 
J'avais reduit, etc. 

CONDITIONAL. 

Present. 
I should reduce . 



Future Anterior. 
I shall have reduced, 
tTaurai reduit, etc. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present. 
That I may reduce. 



Je reduirais. Nous reduirions* Que je reduise* Que nous reduisions* 
Tu reduirais. Vous reduiriez. Que tu reduises. Que vous reduisiez* 
11 reduirait % lis reduiraient. Qu'il reduise. Qu'ils reduisent. 



Past. 
I should have reduced, 
J'aurais reduit, etc. 



Imperative. 
Reduce (thou). 

Reduis. 
QiCil reduise. 
Reduisons. 
Reduisez. 
Qu'ils reduisent* 



Preterite Definite. 

That I might reduce. 

Queje reduisisse. 
Que tu reduisisses. 
QiCil reduisit. 
Que nous reduisissions. 
Que vous reduisissiez. 
Qu'ils reduisissent. 

Preterite Indefinite. 
That I may have reduced. 
Que f aie reduit, etc. 

Pluperfect. 
That I might have reduced , 
Quefeusse reduit y etc. 



4.— PLAINDRE. 

INFINITIVE, 

Present. — Plaindre, to pity. 
Past. — Avoir plaint, to have pitied. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present. — Plaignant, pitying. 

Past. — Plaint, pitied. Ay ant plaint, having pitied. 

Future. — Devant plaindre, about to pity. 



56 



MODEL OF THE CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 



INDICATIVE. 



Je plains. 
Tu plains. 
U plaint. 



Present. 

I pity. 

Nous plaignons. 
Vous plaignez. 
Its plaignent* 



Imperfect. 

I was pitying. 

Jeplaignais. Nousplaignions. 
Tuplaignais. Vous plaigniez. 
U plaignait. Us plaignaient. 

Preterite Indefinite. 
I have pitied. 
J'ai plaint, etc. 

Pluperfect. 
I had pitied. 
J' avais plaint, etc, 

CONDITIONAL. 

Present. 

I should pity. 

Je plaindrais. 
Tu plaindrais. 
It plaindrait. 
Nous plaindrions. 
Vous plaindriez. 
Ms plaindraient* 

PAST. 

I should have pitied. 
xPaurais plaint. 



Preterite Definite. 
I pitied. 

Jeplaignis. Nous plaignimes. 
Tuplaignis. Vous plaignites. 
UplaigniU lis plaignirent. 

Future . 

I shall pity. 

Je plaindrai. Nous plaindrons j 
Tuplaindras. Vous plaindrez ' 
II plaindra. Us plaindront. 

Preterite Anterior. 
I had pitied. 
J' eus plaint, etc. 

Future Anterior. 
I shall have pitied. 
J aurai plaint, etc. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present. 
That I may pity. 

Que je plaigne. 
Que tu plaignes. 
QuHl plaigne. 
Que nous plaignions* 
Que vous plaigniez. 
QuHls plaignenU 

Preterite Definite, 

That I might pity. 

Que je plaignisse. 
Que tu plaignisses. 
Qiiil plaignit. 
Que nousplaignissions. 
Que vousplaignissiez. 
QuHls plaignissent. 



MODEL OF THE CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 



57 



Imperative. 

Pity (thou). 

Plains. 
QuHl plaigne. 
Plaignons. 
Plaignez. 
Qu'ils plaignent. 



Preterite Indefinite. 
That I may have pitied. 
Que faie plaint. 

Pluperfect. 
That I might have pitied . 
Que feusse plaint. 



CONJUGATION OF A REFLECTIVE VERB. 

INFINITIVE. 

Present.— Se lever ( — to raise one's self up), to rise. 
Past. — S'etre leve, to have risen. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present. — Se levant, rising. 

Past. — Leve, risen. S'etant leve y having risen. 

Future — Levant se lever, about to rise. 



INDICATIVE 



Present . 



Je me leve. 
Tu te leves. 
II se leve. 
Nous nous levons, 
Vous vous levez. 
lis se levent. 



Preterite Definite. 



Je me levai. 

Tu te levas. 

U se leva. 

Nous nous levdmes. 

Vous vous levdtes. 

lis se leverent. 



I rose. 



Imperfect. 



I rise. Je me levais. 
Tu te levais. 
11 se levait. 
Nous nous levions t 
Vous vous leviez. 
U se levaient. 



I was rising. 



Future. 

Je me leverai. 
Tu te leveras. 
11 se levera. 
Nous nous Uverons. 
Vous vous leverez. 
lis se lever ont 



I shall rise. 



58 MODEL OF THE CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 

Preterite Indefinite. Pluperfect. 



Je me suis lev6. 

Tu Pes leve. 

B s*est leve. 

Nous nous sommes leves 

Vous vous etes leves. 

11 se sont leves. 



I have risen. 



Je m'etais levL 

Tu fetais leve. 

B s'etait leve. 

Nous nous etions leves. 

Vous vous etiez leves. 

Us s'etaient leves. 



I had risen. 



Preterite Anterior 



Je me fus leve 

Tu te fus leve. 

B se fut leve. 

Nous nous fumes leves. 

Vous vous futes leves. 

lis sefurent leves 



I had risen 



Future Anterior. 



Je me serai leve. 
Tu te seras leve. 
H se sera leve. 
Nous nous serons leves. 
Vous vous serez leves. 
Us se seront leves. 



I shall have 
risen. 



Present. 



CONDITIONAI 



Je me leverais. 
Tute leverais. 
Jise Uverait. 
Nous nous leverions 
Vous vous leveriez. 
Bs se leveraient. 



I should rise. 



Past. 



Je me serais leve, 

Tu te serais leve. 

B se serait leve. 

Nous nous serions leves. 

Vous vous seriez leves. 

Bs se seraient leves. 



I should have 
risen. 



Present. 



SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Preterite Definite, 



Queje me leve. 
Que tu te leves. 
QuHl se leve. 
Que nous nous levions. 
Que vous vous leviez 
QuHls se levent. 



That I may 
rise. 



Qu<eje me levasse. 
Que tu te levasses. 
Quil se levat. 
Que nous nous levassions 
Que vous vous levassiez. 
Qu'ils se levassent. 



That I might 
rise. 



ODEL OF THE CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 59 

Preterite Indefinite. Pluperfect. 

Queje me sois leve. That I may Queje mefusse leve. That I might 

Que tu te sois leve. have risen. Que tu te fusses leve. have risen. 

Qii'il se soit leve. QxCil sefut leve. 

Que nous nous soyons leves. Que nous nous fussions leves. 

Que vous vous soyez leves. Que vous vousfussiez leves. 

QuHls se soient leves. QuHls sefussent leves. 

IMPERATIVE. 

Leve-toi. Rise (thou). 

QuHl se leve. 

Levons-nous. 

Levez-vous. 

QuHls se levent. 



CONJUGATION OF AN IMPERSONAL VERB. 

Y avoir (literally : there to have) is very frequently used : 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present. — Y avoir , there to be. 
Past. — Y avoir eu, there to have been. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present. — Y ay ant, there being. 

Past. — Y ay ant eu, there having been. 

Future. — Devant y avoir, (an idiom meaning : as there is to be.) 

INDICATIVE. 

Present. Preterite Definite. 

There is or are. There was or were. 

11 y a. llyeut. 

Imperfect. Future. 

There was or were. There will be. 

11 y avait. U y aura. 



60 



MODEL OF THE CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 



Preterite Indefinite. 
There has or have been. 
11 y a eu. 

Pluperfect. 
There had been. 
H y avait eu. 



CONDITIONAL. 

Present. 
There would be. 
H y aurait. 

Past. 

There would have 
been. 

It y aurait eu. 



Preterite Anterior, 
There had been. 
11 y eut eu. 

Future Anterior. 
There will have been. 
U y aura eu. 



SUBJUNCTIVE. 
Present. Preterite Definite. 

That there may be. That there might be. 
Qu'ilyait. QiCily eut. 



Preterite Indefinite. 



Pluperfect. 



That there may have That there might have 
been. been. 



QuHl y ait eu. 



QuHly eut eu, 



FALLOIB. 

To be obliged or necessary, corresponding to English : I must, is. 
thus used 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present. — Falloir, to be obliged. 

Past. — Avoir fallu, to have been obliged. 

PARTICIPLES 

Present . — (missing) 

Past. — Fallu, been necessary.* 



Present. 
It is necessary. 



Ufaut 



INDICATIVE. 

Preterite Definite. 
It was necessary. 
Ufallut. 



MODEL OF THE CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 



61 



Imperfect. 
It was necessary. 
llfallait. 

Preterite Indefinite, 
It has been necessary. 
II afallu. 

Pluperfect. 
It had been necessary. 
11 avait fallu. 

Conditional. 
It would be necessary. 
Ufaudrait. 



Future. 

It will be necessary. 
Ufaudra. 

Preterite Anterior 
It had been necessary. 
Ii eutfallu. 

Future Anterior. 
It will have been necessary. 
21 aura fallu. 

Conditional Past. 
It would have been necessary. 
U aur 'ait fallu. 



SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present. Preterite Indefinite. 

That it be necessary. That it have been necessary. 

QuHl faille. QiCil ait fallu. 



Preterite Definite. 
That it were necessary, 
Qu'ilfallut. 



Preterite Anterior. 
That it had been necessary. 
QuHl exit fallu. 



S'EN ALLER 

To go away. 
INDICATIVE. 

Present. Preterite Indefinite. 

Je m'en vais. I am going away, Je men suis alle. I have gone away, 



Til ten vas. 

11 s'en va. 

Nous nous en allons. 

Vous vous en allez. 

lis s'en vont. 



&c. 



&c, 



Til Venes alle. 

11 s"en est alle. 

Nous nous en sommes alles. 

Vous vous en etes alles. . 

Us sen sont alles. 



62 MODEL OF THE CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 

Imperfect. Pluperfect. 

Je m'en allais. I used to go Je m'en etais alle. I had gone away, 



Tu fen allais, 
11 s'en allait. 
Nous nous en allions. 
Vous vous en alliez. 
lis s'en allaient. 



away, &c . Tu fen etais alle. 
II s'en etait alle. 
Nous nous en &tions alles, 
Vous vous en etiez alUs. 
Us s'en etaient alles. 



&c. 



Preterite Definite. 



Je m'en allai. 

Tu fen alias. 

U s'en alia. 

Nous nous en alldmes 

Vous vous en dilates. 

Us s'en allerent. 



I went away. 

&c. 



Preterite Anterior. 



Je m'en fus alle, 

Tu fen fus alle. 

II s'en fid alle. 

Nous nous en fumes alles. 

Vous vous en futes alles. 

lis s'en furent alles. 



I had gone away, 
&c. 



Future. 



Je m'en irai. 
Tu fen irap. 
11 s'en ira. 
Nous nous en irons. 
Vous vous en irez. 
lis s'en iront. 



I shall go away, 
&c. 



Future Anterior- 

Je m'en serai alle. I shall have gone 

Tu fen seras alle. away, &c. 

11 s'en sera, alle. 

Nous nous en serons alles. 

Vous vous en serez alles. 

Us s'en seront alles. 



Conditional. 



Je m'en irais. 
Tu fen irais. 
U s'en irait. 
Nous nous en irions 
Vous vous en iriez. 
Us s'en iraient. 



I should go away, 
&c. 



Conditional Past. 

Je m'en serais alle. I should have 
Tu fen serais alle. gone away, 
U s'en serait alle. &c. 

Nous nous en serious alles, 
Vous vous en seriez alles. 
Us s'en seraient alles. 



IMPERATIVE. 



Va fen. 

Qu'il s'en aille. 

Allons-nous-en. 

Allez-vous-en. 

QuHls s'en aillent. 



Go (thou) away . 
Let him go away. 
Let us go away. 
Go (you) away. 
Let them go away, 



THE ORTHOGRAPHICAL CHANGES. 63 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present. Preterite Indefinite. 

Quejevvenaille. That I may go Quejenfensoisalle. That I may 

Que tu fen ailles. away, &c. Que tu fen sois alle. have gone 

Qu'il s'en aille. Qu'il s'en soit alle. away, &c. 

Que nous nous en allions. Que nous nous en soyons alles. 

Que vous vous en alliez. Que vous vous en soyez alles. 

QuHls s y en aillent. Qu'Lls s'en soient alles. 

Imperfect. Pluperfect. 

Queje m'en allasse. That I might Queje m'enfusse alle. That I might 

Que tu fen allasses. go away, Que tu fen fusses alle. have gone 

Qu'il s'en alldt. &c. QiCil s'enfut alle. away, &c. 

Que nous nous en allassions. Que nous nous enfussions alles. 

Que vous vous en allassiez. Que vous vous enfussiez alles. 

Qwils s'en allassent. QuHls s'en fussent alles. 

INFINITIVE, 

Present. Past. 

S'en aller. To go away, S'en etre alle. To have gone away, 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present. Past. 

S'en allant. Going away. S'en etant alle. Having gone away. 



THE OETHOGEAPHICAL CHANGES, 

which many Verbs undergo, are mainly due to the rule that 

The pronunciation of the root (or stem) in the Infinitive is the 
standard with which all other forms of the Terb in its 
Conjugation must be made to agree. 

In order to do this the root changes certain letters or accents — mere 
changes of spelling. These changes are as follows: 

1— IN THE FIRST CONJUGATION, 

1. — Verbs the root of which ends in c (avanc-er) add the Cedilla (g\ 
whenever the c comes to stand before a hard vowel a, o or u, to preserve 
the soft sound of c in the Infinitive, e. g. 



64 THE ORTHOGRAPHICAL CHANGES. 

Avancer : favangais, il avanga, nous avangons, elles avangaient. 
£>ercer : jepergais, nous per games, vous per gates, per gant. 

2. — Verbs which have a root ending in g (mang-er) insert a silent e 
whenever this g precedes a, o or u, e. g. 

Manger : nous mangeons, je mangeais, elle mangea, mangeant. 
Nager : je nageai, tu nageas, il nagea, il nageait, nageant. 

3. — Verbs ending in — eler or — eter, double the I and the £ whenever 
these letters come to precede silent e, to comply with the other very 
important rule that 

Two mute es must not occur in two consecutive syllables, e. g. 

Appeler: fappelle, tu appelles, Us Jeter : je jette, tu jettes, il jt tte 9 
appellent. elles jettent. 

Note.— 18 such verbs in — eler, and 13 in — eter, instead of doubling I or t, put 
a grave accent on the first e, for the same reason e. g. 

Oeler : je gele, tu geles, il gele, il Acheter: il achete, Us achetent,il 
gelera, acheterait. 

Note.— But 12 verbs ending in —eller and 10 verbs ending in —etter, are not 
subject to this rule: 

Quereller : il querelle, Us que- Fouetter : elle fouette, il fouet- 
rellent, on querelle. tera, ellefouetterait. 

Note.— Annuller retains II before silent e, but has only one I elsewhere. 

Annuller : il annulle, elles annullent — but nous annulons, &c. 

4. — Verbs with an accented e in the penultima, put a Grave 
Accent on it, for the same reason, e. g. 

Esperer : fespere, tu esperes, il Ceder : il cede, Us cedent, on 
esperera. cederait. 

Note.— Verbs ending, however, in —e'er and —eger retain the 4 through- 
out, e. g. 

Agreer : j 'agree, j'agreai, il Proteger: je protege, elle protege, 
agreera. Us protegeront . 

Note.— Yerbs ending in —ier show two i's, when the termination begins 
with i, e. g. 



THE ORTHOGRAPHICAL CHANGES. 65 

Javier : nous priions, vous priiez, Supplier : nous suppliions, vous 
but priant. suppliiez, but supplie ! 

Note.— Yerbs ending in — uer put a diaresis (") over the i of the termination 
to protect it against becoming a diphthong with the preceding u, e. g. 

Tuer : nous tu'ions, vous tu'iez. Saltier: nous salmons, vous 

saluiez. 

Arguer, for the same reason, puts a diaresis over e, e . g. 

Arguer : f argue, tu argues. Us arguent. 

6. — Verbs ending in — yer {payer) are by most modern writers 
made to change the y into i before mute e, e. g. 

Payer : je paie, tu paies, il pale Essay er : fessaie, il essaie, but 
but payant. nous essayons. 

Note.— When je is placed after one of these verbs, the original y reappears. 

Paye-je tout cela ? Do I pay for all this ? Envoy e-je ces lettres ? 
Do I send these letters ? 

Note.— Yerbs ending in —e'er may have three consecutive e: 

Agreer : Une petition qu'on a A petition that has been granted, 
agreee. 

Suppleer : La poudre a ete The powder has been supplied. 
suppleee. 

7. — Verbs ending in — guer (distinguer) keep the u even when pre- 
ceding a or o, and use no diaresis over u, except conclure, exclure : 

Distinguer : je distinguais, il Fatiguer : nous fatiguons, Us 
distingua. fatiguaient. 

Note.— But Adjectives derived from these Yerbs omit the u: 

Intriguer : Intrigant. Fatiguer : FatiganL 

Extravaguer : Extravagant, 

8. — Verbs ending in — yer (payer), some ending in — ier (oublier) 
and a few ending in — uer (remuer) at times elide the e, in the Future 
— mostly in poetry : 

Payer : je pairai, il paira. Balayer : il balaira ces gens. 






66 THE ORTHOGRAPHICAL CHANGES. 

Oublier : Oublirai-je jamais vos Shall I ever forget your gifts? 
dons ? 

Note.— Envoy er is irregular in the Future and Conditional: 

J'enverrai ces journaux a qui de I shall send these papers to whom 
droit. they belong. 

lis Vy enverraient volontiers. They would willingly send it there. 

All Compounds of this Verb follow this model except: devoyer, con^ 
voyer and pourvoyer which are quite regular. 

2— IN THE SECOND CONJUGATION. 

1 . — Verbs ending in — enir (venir) double the n, before silent e, to 
prevent two e following each other, e. g. 

Venir. Je ne desire point qu'il I do not desire him to come. 
vienne. 

Tenir. lis tiennent tous le sceptre They all hold a sceptre in their 
a la main. hand. 

2. — The Verbs courir, mourir } querir and their compounds double 
the r in the Future and Conditional, as this mood and the Imperfect 
differ only in the fact that the former has two r and the latter but one r: 

Je courais moi y et lui, il courrait I ran and he, he would run also, 

aussi, si. . . . if . . . . 

U mourra avec son maitre. He will die with his master. 

3. — The Verb hair makes je hais, tu hais, il hait, but elsewhere 
puts a diaresis over i: 

Nous haissons ceux qui nous We hate those who hate us . 
ha'issent. 

4. — The Verb benir has a double form of the Participle Past: beni, 
used with avoir and expressing God's blessing, and benit, used with 
etre, of consecration by man's hands, e. g. 

Les armes benies de Dieu sont tou- Weapons blessed by God are 
jours heureuses. always successful. 

Vous &tes benite entre toutes les Oh thou blessed among women ! 
femmes. 



THE ORTHOGRAPHICAL CHANGES. 67 

Note.— Betxir, used with avoir, always makes beni, in whatever sense it 
may be used. 

Dieu a beni le drapeau de la God has blessed the banner of 
France. France. 

Le pretre a beni lexers drapeaux. The priest has consecrated their 

flags. 

5. — The Verb fleurir is regular, when used in its natural sense, but 
makes the Participle Pres. : in florissant and the Imperfect frequently as 
ilflorissait, when it is used figuratively, e. g. 

Tout florissait sons le regime du All was prosperous in the father's 
pere. reign. 

Les anemones ne fleurissent pas The anemones do not bloom yet. 
encore. 

3. —IN THE THIRD CONJUGATION, 

1. — Recevoir and Verbs like it (with soft c before evoir) add the 
Cedilla (q) whenever this c would precede a or o or u: 

Mecevoir : II regoit ses gages le He gets his wages on Monday. 

lundl. 
Apercevoir : Nous Vavions aper- We had noticed her from afar. 

Que de loin. 

Concevoir : On concoit cela aise- That is easily conceived. 
ment. 

2.— Devoir, redevoir and mouvoir put a Circumflex accent on the u 
of the Part. Past, to distinguish these forms from similar words of a 
different origin. As there is no such ambiguity in the Plural this num- 
ber has no circumflex, e. g. 

H a duy etre la semaine passee. He ought to have been there last 

week. 
Les honneurs dus a son rang. The honors due to his position. 

But only on the Masculine, because the Feminine form has no such 
doubles. 

Les louanges dues a son merite. The praise due to his merit. 



68 THE ORTHOGRAPHICAL CHANGES. 

3. — Pouvoir, vouloir, valoir and its Compounds end the 1st and 2nd 
p. Pres, Indie, in x, e. g. : 

Jepeux lefaire, maisje ne le veux I can do it but, I will not. 

pas. 
Tu prevaux sur tous les autres ? You got the better of all the others ? 

Note.— Pouvoir and voir, moreover, double the r in the Future and Condi- 
tional. 

Upourra venir quand il vonclra. He may come when he chooses. 
Nous verrons — ay ez patience, sHl We'll see — be patient, if you 
vous plait. please. 

4 — IN THE FOURTH CONJUGATION. 

1. — Verbs ending in — (litre, — oitre and the Verb plaire, with their 
derivatives put a Circumflex Accent on the 3rd. p. S. Present Indie. — in 
the case of croitre to distinguish il croit, he grows, from il croit, he 
thinks. 

Par ait re : Cela meparait bien. That looks well to me. 

Croitre : Elle croit vite. She is growing fast. 

Plaire : Cela vous plait-il, ma- Do you like this, madam ? 
dame f 

2. — Verbs ending in —indre and — ondre lose the d in the 2d p. S. 
Pres. Indie, and in the Imperative respectively: 

Plaindre: C'est ce dont je me That is what I complain of. 

plains. 

Mepoiidre : Reponds done a ce Why do you not answer this 

monsieur ! gentleman ? 

And change d into t in the 3d p. 

H se plaint jour et nuit. He is complaining day and night. 

Elle s'absout elle-meme. She absolves herself. 

3. — Verbs ending in — re without d before — re and such as end in 
— aindre, — eindre and — oindre, form the 3d p. S. Pres. Indie, in t : 

Fa ire: II fait tout ce qui lui plait. He does whatever he likes to do. 



THE TENSES OF THE VERB. 69 

Itompre : Elle rompt les liens de She breaks the bonds of friend- 

lamitie. ship. 

Joindre : 11 joint Vaudace an He unites daring with courage. 

courage. 

4. -The two Verbs dire and faire make vons dites and vous faites, 
and not according to the model : vous disez and vousfaisez, and their 
Compounds follow their example, except medire, which makes vous 
medisez, while mandire doubles the s throughout : nous maudissons y 
vous maudissez, etc. 

5.— Verbs ending in — andre, — endre, — ondre 9 —erdre,—ordre 

form their 3d p. S. Present Indie, simply by dropping re, while rompre 
forms il rompt, and battre uses but one t when it is monosyllabic : 

Hepandre : 11 repand ces bruits He zealously spreads these reports. 

avec zele. 
JZntendre : Qui Tentend Vaime. All who hear her love her. 

Hepondre : On ltd parte mais il They speak to him, but he never 
ne repond jamais, replies. 

Perdre : 11 perd tout et ne dit He loses everything and never says 
mot. a word. 

JBattre : 11 se bat et elle se bat ; a He fights and she fights; what is 
quoi bon ? the use ? 

6. — The Verb prendre and its Compounds double the n whenever it 
is followed by mute e, to avoid the succession of two such e : 

Prendre : lis prennent ce qiiils They take all they want. 

veulent. 

Comprendre : QuHls compren- Let them understand this well ! 
nent cela bien ! 



THE TENSES OF THE YEEB. 

The TENSES are so called from the Latin tempus (time), in French 
le temps (time), which being first mispronounced, and then misspelt, 
became Tense and now means the form assumed by the termination of 
the Verb, in order to indicate, with its meaning, also the time at which 
its action or state &c. takes place. Three times of this kind are shown 



70 THE TENSES OF THE VERB. 

by the Verb : the Present, le present, when the action takes place at 
the time of our speaking — the Past, le passe, indicating that the action 
has taken place before our speaking of it, and — the Future, le futur, 
indicating that the action will take place hereafter. 

1. — The Present Tense, being the time of our speaking, is as such, 
of course, not divisible, and hence this Tense has but one form : 

Jepense, je finis, fapergois,je rends. I think, I end, I perceive, I 

surrender. 

Note.— In English, on the other hand, the Present of the Yerb has a three- 
fold form: the simple form, corresponding to the French I think, and two others, 
viz., lam thinking and I do think. As the French has no such forms, they are all 
three translated alike by the one simple form: Jepense, etc. 

2 . — The Past Tense, on the contrary, may serve to express differ- 
ent views taken of the Past, as there may be different periods within 
the Past. Hence it is that the French Past may have, at least, three 
distinct forms, as the Past may be viewed under three different aspects. 
Thus there are : 

a. The Imperfect, Vimparfait, which denotes a period past, but 
not yet quite elapsed, and even continuing while another is going on : 

Les habitants abandonnaient la The inhabitants were leaving the 

ville. city. 

Elle ecrivait una lettre qnand je She was writing a letter when I 

la vis. saw her. 

Note.— This Impekfect Tense has in English not less than four different 
ways of expression: J'allais, I went— I did go— I was going— I used to go, all four 
of which are in French uniformly rendered by the simple form. 

b. The Preterite Definite^ le preterit defini, which denotes a 
period past and completely elapsed, and marked as such: 

Elle naquit a Londres il y a vingt She was born in London, twenty 
ans. years ago. 

Brutus tua Cesar pour sauver Brutus killed Caesar, to save Rome. 
Rome. 

Note— This Tense, the Historical Tense of the French Verb, is in English 
simply j'allai, "I went" or "I did go." 



THE TEJSSES OF THE VERB. 71 

c. The Preterite Indefinite, le preterit indefini, denoting a past 
period, which is in its own nature, or for a special purpose, left 
indefinite. 

J'ai fait un grand voyage en I have travelled very largely in 
Angleterre. England . 

Mote,— Hence all Definitions of Time which include the present moment, 
as : this morning, this day, this year, this age, etc., are expressed in the. 
Preterite Indefinite Tense. 

Ce matin je Vai vue qui se pro- This morning I saw her taking a 

menait. walk. 

11 n'a fait que pleuvoir tout ce It has rained this whole month 

mois . without a break. 

3.— The Future Tense, represents an action, or a state, etc., as 
belonging to a time after the present period : 

On Tadorera quand il sera mort. He will be worshipped after his 

death. 
Elle viendra ce soir; nous y serons. She will come to night; we shall be 

there. 

It will be seen from this, that Verbs have 

Simple Tenses, which consist of the Verb only, accompanied by the 
Pronouns, and 

Compound Tenses, which are made by using the two Auxiliary 
Verbs avoir and etre, with their Participle Past. These are used to 
designate more accurately certain subdivisions of time. 

The Simple Tenses of the Indicative Mood are four : 

The Present, the Imperfect, the Preterite Definite, the Future. 

Alter: je vais, fallals, fallai, Togo: I go, I went, I did go, I 
firai. shall go. 

The Compound Tenses of the Indicative Mood are four : 

The Preterite Indefinite, the Pluperfect, the Preterite Ante- 
rior, the Future Anterior. 

Alter : Je suis alle, fetais alle, je To go : I am gone, I was gone, I 
fus alle, je serai alle. was gone, I shall have gone. 



72 THE USE OF THE TENSES. 

The Simple Tenses of the Subjunctive Mood are two : 

The Present and the Preterite Definite. 

Aller : Que faille, qnefallasse. Togo: That I may go, that I 

might go. 

The Compound Tenses of the Subjunctive Mood are two : 

The Preterite Indefinite and the Preterite Anterior. 

JEtre : Quefaie ete, quefeusse ete. To be : That I may have been, that 

I might have been. 

The Conditional Mood also has two tenses : 

The Conditional Simple and the Compound Conditional. 

Aller : JHrais volontiers. To go : I would go willingly, 

Je serais alle a V instant. I would have gone at once* 

The Imperative Mood can have but one Tense; that of the Present, 
as we can neither command in the Past, nor in the Future. Its simple 
form, however, expresses at once the Present, in the act of speakings 
and the Future, as the order must needs be obeyed hereafter. 

Va-Venl Parlons-en aux freres ! Go away ! Let us speak of it to 

our brethren ! 

AUez-y de suite et dites-leur d'obeir. Go there at once and tell them to 

obey. 



THE USE OF THE TENSES. 

I. 
SIMPLE TENSES. 

I. The Infinitive of the Verb may be used as a Noun, preceded 

by the Article and qualified by Adjectives or other words : 

Ce n 1 est pas la mort queje erains : It is not Death I fear : it is the 
c'est le mourir. dying. 

It may even be used independent of any other word in the sentence, 
in which case it is generally accompanied by a Preposition, and stands 
at the head of the sentence. 



THE USE OF THE TEXSES. 73 

D'invoquer Dieu lui-ineme — qui As to invoking God Himself — who 
Voserait ? would dare it ? 

A Ten evolve, il va tout emporter If you were to believe him, he 
clans sa chute. would involve all in his fall. 

1 . — The Infinitive may be the Subject of a sentence : 

Attendre est clur — agir ne Vest pas To wait is hard — to act not less so. 
moins 

S'etonner est dupeuple — admirev The common man is amazed — the 

est du sage . wise man admires. 

Note.— It may even represent a double subject, by means of e'est, ^. g. 

Vegeter e'est mourir — penser e'est To vegetate is death — to think is 

vivre. life. 

Te montver e'est plaire — te voir To show yourself is to please — to 

e'est V aimer. see you is to love you. 

2. — The Infinitive may be the Predicate, with the Ethical Verbs 
e"tre, sembler, paraitre, etc. 

A la fin e'est parlerl At last — that is speaking ! 

H serait cense avoir abdique I He would have been considered as 

abdicating ! 

3. — The Infinitive may be the Direct Object of Verbs expressive 
of sensation, and of such as are used in a figurative meaning: 

J'entends venir. — Tout ce que I hear (steps). — All I had heard 

favais ou'i dire. (people) say. 

Je me suis senti entrainer vers lid. I felt myself drawn towards him. 

4. — The Simple Infinitive (without Prepositions) is used after 
Verbs expressing doubt, presuming, fancying, and the like : 

Til comptes done le retenir f So you think you will keep him ? 

Les grands ne croient etre nes que Great people fancy they were born 
pour eux-memes. for themselves only. 

Also after the Verbs laisser, faire, pouvoir } devoir, oser, daigner 
and a few others : 

Je les ai laisse aller a Veeole. I have let them go to school. 

Ella f era tavir nos larmes. She will dry our tears. 



74 THE USE OF THE TENSES. 

Also after the Verbs faillir and manquer in the sense of : to 
just miss. 

Elle a failli perdre la Vendee. She came near losing the Vendee. 

J'ai manque me trahir en parlant. I very nearly betrayed myself by 

my speech. 

5. — The Simple Infinitive is used after all Yerbs of Motion, 

where in English the conjunction and is generally used : 

Allez vite ehercher le medecin. Go quick and get a doctor. 

Elle a ete parler a son confesseur. She went and spoke to her Father 

Confessor. 
Nous accourons voir, si vous etes We come in haste to see if you are 
sain et sauf. well. 

Note.— It is thus that alter serves to form the so-called Immediate Future. 

Nous allons voir ce que c'est. We shall see (directly) what this 

means. 

6. — The Infinitive is often used elliptically , as an interjection: 

Plutot millefois mourir ! Rather die a thousand times ! 

Comment done decouvrir ce secret f How then (shall we) discover this 

secret ? 

Note.— The same elliptic use of the Infinitive occurs in Relative Sentences 
and with Relative Pronouns. 

On saura a qui repondre! We shall know whom to answer ! 

Nous avons de quoi vivre! We have enough to live on ! 

Note.— Hence also the Elliptic Infinitives, standing alone, as Voir (see!) 
savoir (viz.), s'adresser (inquire) and others. 

7. — The so-called Historical Infinitive, preceded by de, is used 
in lively narration to designate an event as just happening: 

Chaque electeur alors de dire : And each Elector thereupon said : 

Les bons limiers de courir, lepauvre The good hounds ran, the poor stag 
cerfdefremir. . „ . trembled . . . 

8. — The Infinitive preceded by de occurs : 
a. As Logic Subject of a sentence: 



THE USE OF THE TENSES. 75 

H est doux de revoir la patrie. It is sweet to see our native land 

once more. 
C'est beaucoup que de savoir com- It is no trifle to know how to 
mander. command. 

b. As Logic Object of a sentence : 

Le sage obtient d'etre ecoute The wise man succeeds in being 

toujours. always heard. 

11 evite d'etre long et il devient He tries not to be lengthy and he 

obscur. becomes obscure, 

c. In the sense of a Genitive : 

After Nouns : 

Si fai Fart de lui plaire, je sais If I know how to please her, I am 
I'art de la punir . able to punish her. 

After Adjectives : 
Je suis sur de V avoir entendu ... I am sure I have heard him . . . 

After Verbs. 

H rougit d y avoir commis cette He blushes having made such a 
. bevue. blunder. 

9. — The Infinitive preceded by a serves : 

a. To represent the Dative Case, where purpose, destination, &c, 
are expressed . 

lis Vexhorterent a prier Dieu pour They urged him to pray to God for 
la patrie. the Fatherland. 

It sera reste a se griser dans quel- He probably remained to get 
que cabaret. drunk in some shop. 

b. To express the Special Nature of an action . 

Je vais passer encore line nuit a I shall spend another night hard at 

travailler. work. 

SHI me surprenait a pleurer f If he should catch me weeping ? 

c. After et re to express an Attribute or Predicate, with passive 
meaning. 



76 THE USE OF THE TENSES. 

Dans ce moment ou Us sont tant a At this time when they are so 

plaindre. much to be pitied. 

Cette fete, a vrai dire, etait To tell the truth, this entertainment 

brillante. was splendid. 

Note.— This is also the meaning of c'est a dire: this means 



Note.— In the attributive meaning, however, the Verb may be active as 
well as passive. 

C est un proces a ne jamais jinir. This is a lawsuit that will never 

end. 
Ces enfants nes et a naitre. Such children, born and to be born. 

While after Adjectives the meaning is always passive : 

Ce n* est pas aise a tronver. That is not easily to be found. 

Ce passage est difficile a expliquer. This passage is not easily ex- 
plained . 

d. After Transitive Yerbs, as the object of activity, but only with 
Verbs like avoir, donner, chercher, trouver, essayer, <Scc. , with a passive 
meaning in many cases : 

11 y a tout a esperer et Us auront There is everything to be hoped 
pen a souffrir. and little for them to ensure. 

Elle avait soin de preparer a She took care to prepare something 
manger. to eat. 

10. — The Infinitive preceded by de or a, changes the Preposition 
with the meaning : 

a. Transitive Ver. s are followed by a, when used reflectively, by 
de, when actively. 

11 a lui-meme offert de le faire. He offered himself to do it . 

It s'est offert a le faire le premier. He offered to do it first. 

b. Many Yerbs change from de to a as their meaning refers to 
the action or to the purpose: 

11 lui demanda de Vexcuser. He asked him to excuse him (de). 

11 demanda a etre admis avec les He asked to be admitted with the 
autres. others (a). 



THE USE OF THE TENSES. 77 

Vous rCavez pas oublie de dire You did not forget to say Good- 

adieu ? bye ? 

J'ai oublie a toucher du piano il y I have long since forgotten to play 

a longtemps. on the piano. 

11 . — The Infinitive may be connected with other Prepositions, e. g. 

a. Definitions of Time are apt to occur with avant and apres : 

J'irai le voir avant departir, I shall go and see him before I 

leave. 
Apres V avoir hai, fai appris a After having hated him, I learned 
V admirer. to admire him. 

b. In Casual Sentences pas and pour are used;_pas, with the idea 
of beginning, pour mainly for purposes of comparison : 

La vanite commence par ternir les Vanity begins by tarnishing good 

bonnes qualites. qualities. 

11 est bien ignorant pour avoir He is very ignorant for one who 

tant etudie. has studied so much. 

Note.— Pour, however, may be also used simply to express the purpose. 

11 y alia pour se laver dans la He went there to wash in the 

riviere . river . 

Que vous air-je fait pour vous What have I done you to make 

courroucer ? you angry ? 

c. Entre is occasionally used to express comparison : 

By a une difference entre laver et There is a difference between wash- 
blanchir. ing and cleaning. 

A Compound for in of the Infinitive is occasionally used — 
known in French as le passe de VInfinitif — consisting of the Participle 
Past of the Verb with the Infinitive of its Auxiliary Verb. It is used: — 

1.— To express an action performed in a time past, but not specified 
or made definite by an Adverb of Time: 

Quiconque a beaucoup vu, He who has seen much, 

Pent avoir beaucoup retenu. Can also remember much. 

Voulez-vous le punir d 'avoir dit la Will you punish him for having 
verite. told the truth ? 



78 THE USE OF THE TENSES. 

2. — After Prepositions, to represent an action as past, with reference 
to the time of the governing Verb: 

Je me rejouis d'etre venu. I am glad I had come. 

Apres avoir dit cela, il s' en fut. After having said that, he went 

away. 

II. The Present (Indicative), a primitive tense, the 1st p. Sing, of 
which ends in the 1st Conjugation in silent e, and in the other Conjuga- 
tions (2d, 3d, and 4th) in silent s, is in English represented by three 
different expressions, for the one in French. 

Alter, Present: je vais. To go. Present: I go, I do go, I am 

going. 

It is used, 1. — To represent an action taking place now, when the 
speaker mentions it: 

Le void qui arrive I Here he is coming ! 

Notre sieele est feeond en grands Our age abounds in great writers. 
ecrivains. 

Note.— Hence the Present also expresses, as a general judgment, things 
which are true now and ever will be true. 

Uhomme le plus obscur, aime la The most obscure of men loves his 

liberte. freedom. 

Dieu est eternel y sa bonte est sans God is eternal, His goodness knows 

bornes. no bounds. 

2. — An action not quite completed or in the action of completion: 

Je meurs aVeffroi. I am dying of fright. 

He bien, je te le donne donc } mon Well then, my friend, I give it to 
ami. you. 

3. — An action belonging to the Past, but extending to the Present, 
or connected with it. 

Je vienspour vous dire ... I have come to tell you . . . 

Qu'est-ce quefapprends ? What is that I hear ? 

Je suis ici depuis un an. I have been here a year. 

Note.— Hence also Quotations are given in the Present. 



THE USE OF THE TENSES. 79 

Herodote commence son histoire.... Herodotus begins his history . . . 
Thucydide n'a pas une settle cita- Thucydides has not a single quota- 
tion. tion. 

4. — The so-called Historical Present takes the place of the Past, in 
order to give more life to the narration: 

Cesar s' eerie: Scelerat, que fais-tuf Caesar exclaims: Wretch, what are 

you doing ? 
Turenne meurt, tout se confond, la Turenne dies; all is upset; Fate 
fortune chancelle . wavers . 

In these cases it often alternates with a Past Tense, generally the 
Imperfect : 

Le combat etait douteux quand on The battle was undecided when we 
voit arriver. . . . see come up . 

U veut prendre du poison, on le lui He wants to take poison; they had 
avait enleve. taken it from him. 

5. — A future action, when quite certain and near completion : 

Son proces se juge demain . His suit comes on to-morrow. 

Je suis ici dans la minute. I'll be back in a minute. 

Note.— In this sense. the Present can even be used with si, provided the 
action is not past, nor future. 

Punissez-le, sHl vous dit cela. Punish him if he tells you so. 

Si Titus fa parle, sHl Vepouse,je If Titus has spoken, if he marries 
pars I you, I leave ! 

6. — The Present takes the place of the Imperative, to express a wish 
or a prayer : 

Vous consentez, n'est-cepas 9 You give your consent, don't you ? 

Vous permettez que nous traitions You permit us to treat here ? 
ici f 

Note— Hence the Subjunctive of the Present virtually becomes the 
Imperative. 

Le nom du Seigneur soit loue ! Praised be the name of the Lord ! 

Vive VEmpereur 1 — Vive la Charte! Cheers for the Emperor ! Cheers 

for the Constitution ! 



80 THE USE OF THE TENSES. 

III. The Imperfect, which in English may be expressed in four 
different ways, viz : I wen f , I did go, I was going and I used to go, has 
in French but one form, uniformly ending in — ais, which answers for 
all the English forms. 

1. — The most frequent use of the Imperfect Tense is to express an 
habitual action or a permanent state of mind or body, which is inter- 
rupted by another action : 

Joseph etait toujours en Egypte, Joseph was still in Egypt, when 

quand il arriva . he came. 

Elle dormait quand on vint She was sleeping when they came 

Veveiller. and waked her. 

2. — Hence also, to express a condition, a custom, or habitual views, 
which have become usage : 

Les Arabes erraient sur le Sinai. The Arabs were wandering over 

Sinai. 
Henri IV etait un grand roi qui Heniy IV was a great king who 
aimait son peuple. loved his people. 

3. — Usual, or at least often repeated actions, expressed in English 
by, 'used to': 

Nous allions la voir tous les diman- We used to go and see her every 

ches. Sunday. 

Elle chantait a la chapelle tous les She used to sing every evening in 

soirs. chapel. 

4. — It is used to express a past action, not matured but continuing : 

Je me noyais un beau jour dans la I was drowning myself, one fine 

Tamise. day, in the Thames. 

Si j'avais dit un mot, on vous If I had said a word, you would 

donnait la mort. have been a dead man. 

5. — It is used to express contemporaneous development of action : 

LorsqiCil etait moine, il etait "When he was a monk, he was less 

moins sage. prudent. 

Tant que durait Vhiver, Us ne As long as winter lasted, they never 

bougeaient pas . stirred. 



THE USE OF THE TENSES. 81 

6.— The Imperfect is used after the Conditional si, (if): 

Si mon cceur etait libre, ilpourrait If my heart were free, it might be 

etre a vous. yours. 

SHI revenait—que feriez-vous ? If he should return— what would 

you do ? 

7. — It is also used instead of the Conditional, for emphasis' sake : 

Un moment deplus etje perdais la One moment longer and I should 
vie ! have lost my life ! 

Si elle te refusait, tu mourrais If she had rejected you, you would 
d'envie. have died of envy. 

8. — Modesty uses the Imperfect to designate an action just going on: 

Je venais annoncer que je Vavais I came (come) to tell you I have 

vue . . . seen her . . . 

C'est vous ? Oui y je vous apportais Is that you? — Yes, I was bringing 

les dernieres nouvelles. (bring) you the last news. 

9. — The Imperfect is used instead of the Pluperfect in English, when 
the past action is determined by a date or a definition of time : 

J'etais ici depuis un an, quand il I had been here a year, when he 

mound. died. 

Je vous appelais depuis dix minu- I had been calling you for ten 

tes. minutes. 

IV. The Preterite Definite, which terminates in the 1st Conju- 
gation in — ai, in the 2nd in — is, in the 3rd in — us, and in the 4th in 
—is- It is 

1. — the Historical Tense, stating simple past facts that took place 
at a Definite Time — the duty of History : 

Le premier il enseigna Vart depar- He was the first to teach the art of 

ler. speaking. 

U fut blesse deux ou trois fois. He was two or three times 

wounded. 

2. — It is used, therefore, to designate any action that took place but 
once, and at a time which is completely elapsed and definitely 
determined : 



82 THE USE OF THE TENSES. 

Dieu crea le monde en six jours. God created the world in six days. 

Elle naquit iei et elle mourut iei . She was born here and she died 

here. 

Note.— Hence this Tense accompanies every precise definition of Past 
Time, such as dates &c. 

Un dimanche fallal mepromener. One Sunday I went out to take a 

walk. 
Le 20 maije regus sa lettre et j y On the 20th May I received his 
repondis le 21. letter and answered it on 

the 21st. 

T. The Future Tense, which always ends in rai, being a new 
Tense, made in French from the Infinitive (flnir) and the Present of 
the Verb avoir (ai } I have, as, thou hast, a, he has etc.): finir-ai, to finish 
I have, is formed in various ways : 

1. — In the 1st Conjugation by simply adding ai to the Infinitive : 
aimer \ j y aimer ai — except aller, to go, which makes firai, I shall go, and 
envoyer, to send, which makes fenverrai, I shall send. 

2. — In the 2nd Conjugation by adding — ai to the Infinitive finir;je 
flnirai, except 4 Verbs, which add — rai to the root of the Verb, e. g. 

Courir :je courrai. Mourir :je To run: I shall run. To die: I shall 
mourrai. die. 

And except the following : 

Cueillir, to gather, which makes Conquerir, to conquer, which 
je eueillerai. makes je conquerrai. 

Acquerir, to acquire, which makes Saillir, to project, which makes 
facquerrai. il saillera. 

Tenir, to hold, which makes Venir, to come, which makes 
je tiendrai. je viendrai. 

3.— In the 3rd Conjugation by changing — oir into —rai : 

Recevoir, to receive : je recevrai. Devoir, to be bound : je devrai. 

Except : 

Avoir, to have, which makes S'asseoir, to sit down, which makes 
j'aurai. je m'assierai. 



THE USE OF THE TENSES. 83 

Dechoir, to sink, which makes Echoir, to fall due, which makes 

je declierrai. il echerra. 

Falloir, to be compelled, which Fouvoir, to be able, which makes 

makes il faudra. je pourrai. 

Savoir, to kuow, which makes Pleuvoir, to rain, which makes 

je saurai. il pleuvra. 

Valoir, to be worth, which makes Vouloir, to be willing, which 

jevandrai. makes je voudrai. 

Voir, to see, which makesye verrai. Pourvoir, to provide, and, prevoir, 

to foresee, simply add — ai. 

4. — In the 4th Conjugation, by changing the —re of the Infinitive 
into —rai. 

Lire, to read :je lirai. Vendre, to sell :je vendrai. 

Except : 
Faire, to do, which makes jeferai and Etre, to be, which makes,;'e serai. 

The Future Tense is used : 

1. — To designate an action which is about to take place or to be 
completed hereafter: 

Je le dis,je le soatiens et je le sou- I say so, I maintain it and shall 

ticndrai. maintain it. 

U en arrivera ce que pourra ! Let there come of it what may ! 

2. — To express prayer or command, anticipating compliance, 
9 forcibly or courteously : 

Tu ne mentiras pas, riest-ce pas f You will not tell a falsehood, won't 

you? 
Ces dames voudront bien rrtex- Will these ladies kindly excuse me? 
cuser ? 

Note.— Hence it expresses also what shal or may be done: 

Qui annoncerai-je ? demanda le Whom shall I announce ? asked 

valet. the servant. 

Mourra-t-il ou dois-je fuir ? Will he die or must I flee ? 

3. — To express what is usual, an 1 as such to be expected : 



84 THE USE OF THE TENSES. 

Je rCai rien, repondra ce malade It is nothing, this obstinate patient 

obstine. will say. 

Uadulateur ne manquera pas de Flatterers will not fail to praise 

vous louer. you. 

4. — As a substitute for the Present partly as a supposition : 

Vous saurez que je suis fils d?un You must know, I am a rich citi- 

riche bourgeois . zen's son. 

Sera bien fin qui jamais m'y He has to be very shrewd who 

attrape ! wants to catch me ! 

Note.— Hence also from real or affected modesty: 

Comme il vous plaira, monsieur! As you like it, Sir! 

Pourtant, songez-y, vous dirai-je... Still, I say to you: Think of it ! 

5. — Instead of the Present in English, with quand } when the 
expected event has not yet come to pass : 

Quandj 'aural de V argent, je vien- I'll come when I have any money. 

drai. 

Upassera chez vous, quand il sera He will call on you, when he is in 

a Londres. London. 

6.— As a substitute for the Past, when this Past is Future to the 
speaker also : 

H a ete convenu quHl viendra de- It has been agreed upon that he 
main. should come to-morrow. 

De cette victoire sortira pour lui le This victory brought him the 

titre. . . . title 

7. — The Future may occur elliptically, without a Subject, at the 
head of a sentence : 

Croira qui pourra I Let him believe who can ! 

Bira bien qui rira le dernier ! All is well that ends well ! 

Note.— On the whole it must be borne in mind that in French the Future is 
used with much greater accuracy than in English, whenever the Verb implies a 
future action, even when the English uses the Present: 

Jepaieraimes dettes quand j'aurai I'll pay my debts when I have 
del' argent. money. 



THE USE OF THE TENSES. 85 

Voas lul direz eela quand 11 You will tell him so when he 

reviendra. comes back. 

Nous vous en enverrons, quand elles We will send you some when they 

seront mures. are ripe. 

Note.— There are two other forms of the Future Tense, worth being 
mentioned : 

1. — The so-called Near Future, le futar prochain, made by the aid of 
aller with the Infinitive of the Verb, to designate actions which, though 
future, are impending now : 

Je vais le faire— fallals le faire. I shall do it (at once) — I was (just) 

(No Compound Tenses). going to do it. 

Lejour va flair et cet homme qui The day is closing, and this man 

va mourir t who is dying ? 

2.— The so-called Probable Future, lefutur probable, made by the 
help of devoir and the Infinitive of the Verb: 

Je dots le faire— fai du le faire. I ought to do it — I ought to have 

done it . 

Note.— It will be seen that in English the Infinitive takes the form of the 
Past, in French the Auxiliary (devoir, pouvoir, falloir, etc.) takes it and the 
Infinitive remains in the Present: 

H aurait du nous en avertir et tout He ought to have warned us and 

serait bien. all would be right. 

Elle doit etre ici avant Noel. She is going to be here before 

Christmas . 

TI. The Future Anterior, le futur anterleur, consisting of the 
Participle Past of he Verb and the Future of either Auxiliary, is used : 

1.— To designate a future action as completed before another future 
action : 

Quand faurai recti de vos lettres, je When I receive letters from you I 
repondral. shall answer. 

QiCon m'avertisse quand les che- Let me be told when the horses are 
vaux seront atteles. ready. 

2. — To designate a future action simply as completed : 

Souviens-toi queje V aural predit ! Remember that I foretold you so ! 



86 THE USE OF THE TENSES. 

Jamais il n'aura fait aidant de He will never have made so much 
bruit de son vivant . noise when alive. 

3. — It may, like the simple Future, be connected with the Present, 
instead of the Past, when mere apprehension is expressed and not cer- 
tainty : 

S'il reussit, il aura separe Varmee If he succeeds, he cuts off the 
russe. Russian army. 

Si cela arrive, vous serez force de If that happens, you will have to 
V abandonner, abandon him. 

VII. The Conditional which always ends in — rats (pronounced 
like very broad rS\ is formed by addding s io the Future : 

Future. Conditional. 

J'aimerai, I shall love. J'aimerais y I should love. 

Je finirai, I shall finish. Je finirais, I should finish. 

Je recevrai, I shall receive. Je reeevrais, I should receive. 

je rendraiy I shall return. Je rendrais, I should return. 

The same rule applies to the Verbs which make the Future 
irregularly: 

Avoir. Future : faurai. Conditional : faurais. 

jlcquerir* Future : facquerrai. Conditional : facquerrais. 

Note.— In its general character the Conditional in French corresponds to 
the so-called Potential Mood, or Potential Imperfect, in English. 

I would sing, if I knew Music. Je chanterais si je savais la 

Musique. 

Note.— The English Conditional frequently takes the place of the Future. 
This is not admissible in French, where the Future must be used. 

They told me you start to- On rrt'a dit que vous partirez 

morrow. demain. 

I should have wagered you would J 'aurais parie que vous viendrez . 

come. 

The Conditional is used : 

1. — To designate an action which is subject to a condition (which 
being fulfilled the action will take place): 



THE USE OF THE TENSES. 87 

tTirais chez lui, sHl le voulait. I would go to him, if he wished it. 

Je payerais la dette si favais I would pay the debt, if I had 
I ' argent, money. 

2. — To designate actions which, from the standpoint of the Past, are 
not looked upon as being or becoming perfect : 

Ilsjuraient quHls ne toucheraient They swore they would not touch 

auroi the king. 

Nous convinmes que nous par- We agreed to leave. 

tirions . 

Or the effect of a hypothetical action : 

If my heart were free, it might be Si mon coeur etait libre, ilpourrait 
yours. etre a vous. 

Even when the principal action is omitted : 

Que deviendrais-je sans vous ? What would become of me with- 

out you ? 
H faudrait des ailes pour revionter It would take wings to get up again 
la tour. on that tower. 

3. — After si, meaning 'whether' and expressing doubt or uncertainty 
(but never after si, meaning 'if' and expressing a condition): 

Je ne sais si firais ou now.. *Hl le I do not know whether I would go 
fallaii. or not if I must. 

4. — An elliptic Conditional occurs in phrases expressive* of great 
courtesy or of irony : 

Quoi, monsieur, vous auriez Vau- What, Sir, you would dare. . . .? 

daee ? 

Cela pourrait Men etrv, fe ne dis That might very well be so, I do 

pas not say 

Note.— A Second Conditional is made by using the Subjunctive of the 
Past Tense of the Auxiliary with the Part. Past of the Verb itself; it serves to 
designate an action, looked at as complete in the Future : 

Si elle n'eut point existe, faurais If she had never existed, I should 
ete heureux. have been happy, 

Je Faurais gudrie eij'eusse ete son I would have cured her, had I 
medecin, been her doctor. 



88 THE USE OF THE TENSES. 

Note.— A Double Conditional is frequently met with, when the Depend- 
ent Sentence is made the principal— grammatically: 

On V imprimerait que chacun le Everybody would read it, if it 
Urait. were printed. 

La coupe serait pleine que je la If the cup were full even, I would 
boirais a toi. still pledge it to thee. 

Note.— The Conditional Forms of certain Verbs have idiomatic mean- 
ings, e.g. 

Pouvoir. The Conditional represents the English could or 
might, expressing possibility : 

Pourriez-vous le faire pour moi Could you do it for me now 

maintenant ? 
Je pourrais Vessayer si vous le I might try it, if you wish it. 

vouliez . 

Devoir* The Conditional expresses the English should or ought 
TO, referring to moral obligation : 

Vous devriez y alter ; cela vaut la You ought to go there; it is worth 

peine. the trouble. 

11 devrait le faire, s y il veut lui He ought to do it, if he wishes to 

plaire. please her. 

while the Compound Conditional of pouvoir and devoir (and not of the 
Principal Verb as in English), corresponds to the English could have, 
should have or ought to have with the Part. Past : 

11 aurait pu le faire dans Vhiver, He could have done it during 

winter. 
Elles auraient du y consentir avant They ought to have agreed to it 
sa mort. before her death . 

Vouloir. The Conditional represents I would or I should be 
willing or I like, I wish, followed by an Imperfect (I wish I knew): 

Voudriez-vous avoir la bonte d'en- "Would you be so kind as to come 

trer ? in ? 

Je voudrais la voir qui patine. I should like to see her skate. 

Aimer mieux, represents the English I would rather, I wish 
I — , etc. 



THE USE OF THE TENSES. 



89 



J'aimerais mienx mourir que de I would rather die than live thus. 

vivre ainsi. 
Nous aimerions mieux nous en aller. We would rather go away. 

Savoir, used with ne, in the Conditional, represents the English 
I cannot when the inability is mental (while je peux expresses the same, 
when the inability is either absolute or only physical), e. g. 

Je ne saurais vous dire oil il I cannot tell you where he lives. 

demeure. 
Sauriez-vous m'en expliquer la Can you tell me the reason of it ? 

raison ? 
Jepeux le dire, mats je n'ose pas. I can tell but I dare not. 

The Imperative is in form the same as the Present Indicative, 
omitting the Pronouns : 



Present Indicative. 



Imperative. 



Je parle y 
Nous parlous, 
Vous parlez, 

Je regois, 
Nous recevons, 
Vous recevez, 

Je finis, 
Nous finissons, 
Vous finissez, 

Je vends, 
Nous vendons, 
Vous vendez, 



I speak. 

we speak. 

you speak. 

I receive. 

we receive. 

you receive. 

I finish. 

we finish. 

you finish. 

I sell, 
we sell, 
you sell. 



Parle ! 
Parlous ! 
Parlez ! 

Regois ! 
Recevons ! 
Recevez ! 

Finis ! 
Finissons ! 

Finissez I 

Vends ! 
Vendons ! 
Vendez ! 



speak (thou) ! 

let us speak ! 

speak (you) I 

receive (thou)! 

let us receive ! 

receive (you)! 

finish (thou)! 

let us finish ! 

finish (you)! 

sell (thou)! 

let us sell ! 

sell (you)! 



Except : Etre, to be, which makes, not suis, but sois ! 

Avoir, to have, which makes, not as, but aie ! have (thou)! 
Aller, to go, which makes, not vais, but va! go (thou)! 
Savoir, to know, which makes, not sais, but sache! know (thou)! 
Vouloir, to be willing, makes in the Plural, not voulez, but 
veuillez, with the meaning : Be pleased, please ! 

Note.— The 1st Person Plural of the Imperative is often used for the 1st 
p. Sing, the speaker addressing himself as many— but in such cases the Adjec- 
tive that qualifies the person, remains Singular: 



90 THE USE OF THE TENSES. 

Vivons cache, libre et content ! Let me live concealed, free and 

content ! 
Tout emu que je suis, restons However moved I am, let me retain 
maitre de moi ! my self control ! 

The Imperative is used to express every shade of entreaty or com- 
mand, request or prohibition, absolute order and gentle persuasion. 

Laissez dire les sots, le savoir a son Let fools talk ; knowledge is 

prix! power ! 

Usez, n'abusez pas, le Sage ainsi Use, but do not abuse ! Such is the 

Vordonne. wise man's order. 

The Imperative is frequently used instead of the Conditional, and 
then expresses concession and the like : 

Avoue-le et je te pardonne I Confess it and I shall forgive you ! 

viz: I should forgive you if you 
^ were to confess .... 

Ayez fini la tache ou non, on Whether you have finished your 
ne vous payera pas I work or not, they will not pay 

you. 

Note.— The Imperative followed by another Yerb, that is its object, is in 
English connected with it by the Conjunction 'and' ; in French by the Infinitive 
of the second Yerb : 

Go and tell him that I want it so ! Allez lui dire queje le veux. 
Venez nous voir chaque jour de Come and see us every day this 
cette semaine . week . 

Note.— Of two Successive Imperatives which have the same Pronoun. as 
their Object, only the first is placed after the Yerb with a hyphen, but the second 
precedes the Yerb: 

Prenez ce livre; lisez-le et le relisez I Take this book; read it and read it 

again ! 
Parlez-lui et lui dites ce qui le Speak to him and tell him what 
regarde ! concerns him ! 

Note.— Certain Imperatives, often repeated, have become mere Interjec- 
tions losing entirely their original meaning, such as : Tiens, tenez, de> 

Tiens, voild ce qui est fait ! Now — here it is all done ! 



THE USE OF THE TENSES. 91 

Tenez, qiCest-ce que vous enpourrez Come now, what do you think you 
faire ? can do about it ? 

Va! cela ne vaitt pas la peine, fen Pshaw ! It is not worth while ! 
suis siir ! 



II. 

COMPOUND TENSES. 

I. The Preterite Indefinite, leparfait indefini, consisting of the 
Present Tense of either Auxiliary Verb with the Participle Past, (fai 
dine, il est sorti) designates — as its name indicates — an action which is 
not definitely past, i. e. not completely achieved : 

J'ai lu le moment que vous avez I read the moment you spoke. 
parle. 

Hence it is used : 1. — Whenever the Verb is accompanied by an 
Adverb of Time, which connects it with the present time, as : this year, 
this month, this season, now-a-days, etc. 

H a fait bien chaud aujourd'hui. It was very warm to-day. 

Je Vai vue ce matin qui allait a I saw her this morning, going to 

Vecole. school. 

En rentrant chez moi ce soir, j'ai As I came home this evening I 

appris was told 

2. — When the action, though itself completed, still continues in its 
effects : 

H a beaucoup lu et il en a beaucoup He has read much and improved 
proftte. ' himself much by it. 

Ou avez-vous lu que les gens mines Where did you read, that ruined 
ont des amis ? men have friends ? 

3. — When the verb is accompanied by an Adverb of Time, which 
shows that the action cannot be completed, like : always, ever, etc. 

Je n^ai jamais vu unplus bel enfant. I never saw a finer child. 

(Jest ce que j'ai toujour s dit. I always said co. 

H m'est arrive bien des fois ... It has very often happened to me. .. 



92 THE USE OF THE TENSES. 

4. — When the Future can with certainty be anticipated, the 
Preterite Indef . is used in its place : 

Attendez! J'ai fini dans un Wait, I'll be done in a minute ! 

moment I 
Je ne bougerai pas que je ne vous I shall not stir till I have seen you 

aie vu. 

5. — It is also used when a past action is stated simply with regard to 
its relation to the present moment, especially when single or general 
facts of the Past are given disconnectedly : 

Je vous ai ecrit, il y a une quin- I wrote you a fortnight ago . 

zaine de jours. 

On a tenu hier la seconde seance; The second meeting took place 

fai ete applaudi. yesterday; they applauded me. 

II. The Pluperfect, le plus-que-parfait, which consists of the Im- 
perfect of the Auxiliary the Participle Past of the Verb, (favaisparle, 
fetais assis) always denotes an action which had taken place, sooner or 
later, before another past action or event : 

J' avals dit la verite et f avais flechi I had told the truth and I bent his 

son coeur. heart. 

U avait dejeune quand nous He had breakfasted when we called 

vinmes le prendre. for him. 

From which it will be seen, that where two such past actions are 
mentioned, the Pluperfect serves to express the principal action, and the 
Preterite Anterior that of minor interest, which merely serves to desig- 
nate the other more accurately. 

Note.— The Pluperfect must not be used instead of the Preterite Anterior, 
if the action does not bear relations to the past time of the principal Verb : 

Not : II m'a dit qu'il avait vendu 

la maison. 
But : II m'a dit quHl a vendu la He told me, he had sold his house. 

maison. 

The Pluperfect is used : 1 . — In Principal Sentences to designate an 
action which took place prior to another, as old : 



THE PARTICIPLES. 93 

U avait vu le lieu ou il etait ne. He had seen the place where he 

(Sultan) was born. 
Quand f avals rdussi il me fallaitle When I had succeeded, I had to 
ramasser pick him up. 

2.— In Dependent Sentences, when the unreality of the completed 
action is delicately suggested : 

Sifavais dit mot, on me donnait If I had said a word, they would 
la mort. have killed me. 

SHI avait eu ce genie, il aurait If he had had such genius, he 
vaincu . would have conquered . 

III. The Preterite Anterior, le preterit anterieur, which 
consists of the Preterite Definite of the Auxiliary with the Participle 
Past of the Verb proper (feusfini, jefus vaincu), is used : 

1. — To express an action, finished immediately before another past 
action, to which it is subordinate : 

A peine eus-je parle qiCil s'eleva un I had hardly spoken when a noise 

bruit. . . . was heard 

Hier quandj'eus ecrit mes lettres, Yesterday, when I had written my 

il entra. letters, he came in. 

2. — Hence this Compound Tense is rarely used unless accompanied 
by Adverbs of Time, like des que, apres que, aussitot que, &c, hence 
generally, when these actions form a link in a narrative : 

Des qu'ils eurent bu un peu, Us se As soon as they had drunk a little, 

sentirent mieux. they felt better. 

A peine me fus-je levee qyC "on entra. I had no sooner gotten up than 

people came in. 



THE PARTICIPLES, 

which have their name from participating in the nature of the 
Verb, which gives their form and their meaning, and in the nature of 
the Adjective, as they may qualify a Noun, expressing a quality and 
agreeing with a Noun in Number and Gender. The Verb has two Parti- 
ciples : the Participle Present and the Participle Past. 



94 THE PAETIC1PLFS. 

I. The Participle Present, le participe present, which invariably 
ends in — ant, (in the 2d Conjugation in — issant and in the 3rd in 
— evanf), donner, donnant ; punir, punissant ; concevoir, concevant ; 
rendre, rendant, is used : 

1. — As a Part of the Yerb, expressing an action — which may have a 
Direct Object; as such it is always indeclinable (because Verbs have no 
declension). The Participle may refer to the subject of the sentence, or 
to the object : 

Elle ra'a surprise pleurant. She caught me (in tears) weeping. 

On lui a tire du sang, se portant They bled him, when he was well. 
bien. 

a. The Part. Present, placed at the head of the sentence, is used 
absolutely and expresses a cause or a circumstance : 

Souffrant toujour s> comment puis- As I always suffer, how can I be 

je etre gai ? gay ? 

Le cas echeant, je me tirerai If that should happen, I'll get out 

d' affaire, of it. 

b. With en, it refers to the subject of the sentence and expresses 
cotemporary action : 

H perit en voyant bruler son llion. He died seeing his Ilium in flames. 
Enfinissantlalettreil s'endormit. He fell asleep as he finished the 

letter. 

c. With en, it expresses a conditional state or action : 

On hasarde trop en voulant trop We risk too much when we wish to 
gagner. gain too much. 

d. Or a concession, generally enforced by even : 

Meme en voyant mes pleurs, il se Even when he saw my tears, he 
taisait. said nothing. 

and frequently intensified by the addition of tout : 

Tout en les bldmant, il leur Even whilst blaming them, he 
pardonna. forgave them. 

e. Without en it may occasionally be used with another Verb 
descriptively : 



THE PARTICIPLES. 



95 



Un ruisseau qui va serpentant par 

la prairie. 
Le mal va toujours croissant. 

The Participle Present is used : 



A brook winding through the 

meadow. 
The disease grows worse and worse. 



2.— -As a Yerbal Adjective, expressing a quality, and as such it is 
declinable, agreeing with the Noun which it qualifies : 



Verb : Les dmes aimant Dieu, 

aiment la verite. 
Adj. : Les dmes aimantes plaisent 

a Dieu, 
Verb : Une terre fumant du sang 

des victimes. 
Adj. : II arrose ses cendres encore 

fumantes. 



Verb: The souls that love God, love 

the truth. 
Adj.: Loving souls please God. 

Verb : A soil smoking wi Ji the 
blood of the slain. 

Adj. : He sprinkles his still smok- 
ing ashes. 



Note.— Occasionally the two meanings produce two ways of spelling, e. g. 

La femme du Resident n'y etait The wife of the (Minister) Resident 
pas. was not there. 

Lapaix residant parmi eux ... Peace dwelling among them 

Elle est negligente en tout. She is neglectful in all things. 

Negligeant tout pour vous, elle se Neglecting all for your sake, she 
sacrifie. sacrifices herself. 

Note.— Several of these Yerbal Adjectives are used as Nouns: 



Le combat finit faute de com- 
batants. 

Elle est Protestante, si je ne me 
trompe. 



The fight ended for want of 

combatants. 
She is a Protestant, if I am not 

mistaken. 



PARTICIPLES PRESENT 

used as 



PARTICIPLES. 


ADJECTIVES. 


Accourant, 


running. 


Accablant y 


overwhelming 


Achetant, 


buying. 


Affligeant, 


afflicting. 


Approuvant, 


approving. 


Aimant, 


loving. 


Attendant, 


waiting. 


Alarmant, 


alarming. 


Avangant, 


advancing. 


Amusant, 


amusing. 


Blamant, 


blaming. 


Brulant, 


burning. 


Calculant, 


calculating. 


Caressant, 


caressing. 



06 



THE PARTICIPLES. 



PARTICIPLES. 


ADJECTIVES. 


Causant, 


talking. 


Confiant, 


trusting. 


Chassant, 


hunting. 


Dectiirant, 


tearing. 


Dejeunant, 


breakfasting. 


Degradant, 


degrading. 


Dinant, 


dining. 


Desesperant, 


despairing. 


Disparaissant, 


disappearing. 


Deshonorant, 


dishonoring. 


Ecrivant, 


writing. 


Desolant, 


distressing. 


Entrant, 


entering. 


Devorant, 


devouring. 


Explorant, 


exploring. 


Dormant, 


sleeping. 


Galopant, 


galloping. 


Effrayant, 


frightening. 


Goutant, 


tasting. 


Endurant, 


enduring. 


Jardinant, 


gardening. 


Ennuyant, 


annoying. 


Jouant, 


playing. 


Etonnant, 


astonishing. 


Lisant, 


reading. 


Etouffant, 


smothering. 


Mangeant, 


eating. 


Frappant, 


striking. 


Marchant, 


walking. 


Imposant, 


imposing. 


Paraissant, 


appearing. 


Interessant, 


interesting. 


Partant, 


starting . 


Marquant, 


marking. 


Peignant, 


painting. 


Meprisant, 


despising. 


Pretant, 


lending. 


Mortiftant, 


mortifying. 


Eeculant, 


receding. 


Mourant, 


dying. 


Eeflechissanty 


reflecting. 


Nourrissant, 


feeding. 


Bevant, 


dreaming. 


Offensant, 


offending. 


Sautant, 


jumping. 


Prevoyant, 


foreseeing. 


Soupant, 


supping. 


Eevoltant, 


revolting. 


Soupirant, 


sighing. 


Seduisant, 


tempting. 


Souriant, 


smiling. 


Sonnant. 


sounding. 


Travaillant, 


working. 


Suppliant, 


beseeching. 


Vendant, 


selling. 


Surprenant, 


surprising. 


Voyageant, 


traveling. 


Touchant, 


touching. 






Tranquilisant, 


quieting. 






Tremblant, 


trembling. 



Note.— In old French All Participles Present were declined like Adjectives, 
and this continued till the XIY Century. Then the absurdity of declining a Verb 
was pointed out. and Pascal's Letlres, in which they were left undeclined, pro- 
duced a complete reform— till in 1679 the French Academie decreed: "La regie est 
faite: On ne declinera plus les Participes Presents." 

The Use of the Participle Present in French differs in some points 
essentially from its use in English. The principal cases are the following: 

1. — The Part. Present may not be used with Prepositions, except en, 
when it means ' whilst' — the Infinitive taking it place : 



THE PARTICIPLES. 97 

Without going" any further, I am Sans aller plus loin, je suis con- 

convinced. vaincu. 

Before taking supper, drink a glass Avant de souper, bnvez un verve 

of water. d'eau. 

She spends her time in reading Elle passe son temps a lire des 

novels. romans. 

But : Whilst reading she fell asleep. En lisant elle s'endormit . 

2. —It may not be used as the Direct Object of another Verb — the 
Infinitive here also taking its place : 

I saw him painting that portrait. Je Vai vupeindre ce portrait. 
Have you done (stopped) weeping Avez-vous flni de pleurer enfin ? 
at last ? 

3. — It may not be used with Mre, as it is in English with 'to be' — 
the simple Verb taking its place : 

I have been looking for you every- Je vous ai cherche partout. 

where. 

While you were travelling, he was Tandis que vous voyagiez, lui, il 

studying hard. etudiait avec zele. 

Note.— Occasionally, however, modern writers, especially, imitate this 
construction: 

Je suis tout souffrant ce matin, I am suffering much this morning. 

Je Vassurais qu'elle etait encore I assured him that she was still 
vivante. living . 

4. — It may not be used with a Possessive Pronoun — the correspond- 
ing Noun or the Infinitive taking its place : 

Are you satisfied with my playing I Etes-vous content de mon jeu ? 
As to his coming here Pour ce qui est de venir id 

5. — It may not enter into a Compound Noun — the Infinitive or 
corresponding Noun taking its place : 

Who was your dancing-master in Qui a etc votre maitre de danse d 

Paris ? Paris t 

Here is the copying-paper you Void le papier a copier qu'il vous 

want. faut. 

Note.— Partant is used only in familiar or business style, expressing 
simply sequence: 



08 THE PARTICIPLES. 

Sur quoi paye tant, partant reste : On which (being) paid so much — 

hence there remains : 
U n'avaitplus de fortune— partant, He had no means left — conse- 
plus a" amis. quently, no friends . 

Note.— The Participle Present with the Yerb aller, is used to express steady 
increase or progress: 

Sa voix allant roulant dans le As his voice rolled on more and 

silence . . more in the silence 

Le mal va toujours croissant. The evil is steadily increasing. 

II. The Participle Pas*, leparticipe passe, which ends in — e in 
the 1st Conjugation (donner : donne), in — i in the 2nd {finir : fini), in 
— u in the 3rd (recevoir : regit) and in — u in the 4th {rendre : rendu) or 
in — s and in — t , is capable of forming a Feminine 1 >y adding — e {regu : 
regue), and of forming a Plural by adding — s (donne: donnes and 
donnees), 

1 . — Remains unchanged in the following cases : 

a. "When it forms Compound Tenses of Active and Neuter Verbs, 
when, as has been stated (p. 36) it is always accompanied by avoir : 

J'ai regu la lettre °A fai ecrit la I received the letter and I wrote 

reponse. the answer. 

Nous avons regrette de ne pas vous We regretted much not to see you. 

voir. 

b. The following 9 Participles : attendu, excepte, non compris 
(y compris), ci-inclus, (ci-joint) passe, suppose^ vu and oid, are con- 
sidered Verbal Adverbs, and as such remain unchanged, when they 
precede their Nouns : 

Attendu les evenements, cela me Considering what has happened, I 
surprend. am surprised. 

Excepte elle et moi, nous y fumes She and myself excepted, we were 
tous. all there. 

But these same Participles, when they follow their Nouns, are con- 
sidered Adjectives, and agree with them : 

Elle et moi exceptes, on nous blame She and myself excepted, all were 

tous. blamed. 

Des evenements attendus long- Long expected events then oc- 

temps, survinrent. curred. 



THE PARTICIPLES^ 99 

Note.— Gi joint and ci-inclus remain unchanged only when they begin a 
sentence, or stand before a Noun without Article : 

Ci-joint quittance et ci-inclus copie Herewith follows receipt, and en- 

du contrat. closed is copy of contract. 

But: Vous trouverez ci-jointe la You will find enclosed the copy.... 

copie 

c. The Participle Past of all Impersonal Verbs (genuine and 
spurious) remains always unchanged : 

Les plus hautes idees qu'il y ait The loftiest thoughts there ever 

jamais eu. were. 

Les chaleurs excessives quHl a fait. The excessive heat we have had. 
Que de maux il en est residte ! How many ills have sprung 

from that ! 

d. Also Participles connected with the Accusative of Time : 

Toutes les annees qxCa dure cette All the years that this war con- 

guerre. . . . tinued . . . 

Les nombreuses annees que fy ai The many years I have lived 

vecu there.... 

Note.— Ete is invariable under all circumstances. 
2. — Is declined in the following cases : 

a. When it accompanies a Noun as an Adjective : 

Ces machines vieilles et mat con- These old and ill made machines. 

struites. 

Nourries a la campagne vos filles Brought up in the country, your 

sont robustes. daughters are robust. 

6. When it is used with etre, it agrees with the Subject. 

Ces enfant s sont aimes de leurs These children are beloved by 

parents. their parents. 

Elles sont arrivees trop tard. They came too late. 

c. When it is used with avoir ; in this case it agrees with the 
Direct Object, which precedes it. This Direct Object may be a 

Noun: Que d'etoiles on a rues ce How many stars have been seen to- 
soir/ ni -ht ! 



100 THE PARTICIPLES. 

Personal Pron. : La lettref Je Vai The letter ? I have read it and given 

lue et je la lui at donnee. it to him. 

Relative Pron. : Ces dames que These ladies to whom we bowed..., 

nous avons saluees. . . . 

Note.— It follows that the Part. Past, used with avoir, does not agree with 
an Indirect Object, nor with a Direct Object that follows it: 

Ces dames dont nous avons parle These ladies of whom we spoke. 

(Indirect Obj. dont). 

On a vu toutes ees etoiles ce soir They have seen all these stars to- 

(Direct Obj. after Verb). night. 

La dame ? Je lui ai parle hier That lady ? I spoke to her yester- 

(Indirect Obj. lui). day. 

Note.— If there is no Object at all, the Part. Past always remains 
unchanged : 

On avait cause beaucoup et dormi They had chatted much and slept 
fortpeu. very little. 

d. When it is used with etre instead of avoir, as is the case in all 
Pronominal Verbs, but under the same conditions as e : 

Elle s'est levee de fort bonne heure. She got up very early. 
Nous nous sommes trompes taut We have beeu so often mistaken ! 
de fois ! 

But it does, of course, not agree, when the 2nd Pronoun is the 
Indirect and not the Direct Object, as in : 

La petite s'est baignee (Dir. Obj.) The little one bathed herself twice 

deux fois hier . yesterday. 

Elle s'est lave (Indir. Obj.) les She has just this moment washed 

mains ce moment. her hands. 

Nor does it agree with either Direct or Indirect Object, when it is 
immediately followed by an Infinitive (sef aire aimer, se laisser prendre), 
as in such cases the Verb is the Direct Object of the Part. Past : 

Elle s y est fait aimer — elle m 'a fait She has made herself beloved — me 

hair. hated ! 

Ces soldats s'etaientlaisse prendre. These soldiers let themselves be 

taken. 

Note.— If, however, the Infinitive is not the Direct Object of the Participle 
Past, the latter will agree as usual: 



THE PARTICIPLES. 101 

A peine Vavons-nous entendue We scarcely could hear her speak- 

parler. ing. 

Je les ai vusf rapper deuxfois. I saw them struck twice. 

e. The Verbs aider, to help, couter, to cost, valoir, to be worth, 
andpeser, to weigh, vary in their nature, being Neuter in their literal 
sense, but Active, when used figuratively, and their Part. Past will agree 
or not agree in accordance : 

La somme que ce cheval a valu est The amount which this horse was 

perdue. worth, is lost. 

Les avantages que mon nom m'a The advantages which my name 

valus, sont grands. procured for me, are great. 

Les cent livres que ce ballot a pese, The 100 lbs. which this bale weigh- 

y ont ete comptees. ed, were counted there. 

Ces questions qu'on a bien pesees, These questions, that were carefully 

m' inter essent peu. weighed, interest me little. 

H nous a aide's de sa bourse. (Act.) He assisted us with his purse. 

II nous a aide a descendre. (Neut.) He helped us down. 

f. The Participle Past preceded by two Nouns, connected by de 
(le nombre d'enfants, la plupart des gens) agrees with that of the two 
Nouns, to which it most directly refers 

Le nombre de f aides que fai re- The number of mistakes I have 
marque est grand. noticed, is large. 

Le nombre des fautes que fai The number of mistakes I have 

corrigees. ... corrected 

g. The Participle Past preceded by le peu de remains un- 
changed, when le peu means "the want of," but it agrees with the Noun 

following, when it means "the few' : 

« 

Le peu d' affection quHl a montre, The want of affection, which he 

prouve.... has shown proves 

Lepeu oV 'attention qxvil a montree, The little attention (even) which he 

lui est utile. has shown, is useful. 

h. The Participle Past referring to Adverbs of Quantity always 
agrees with the Noun following these Adverbs : 

Beaucoup d erreurs se sont glissees Many mistakes have slipt into this 
dans ce livre. book. 



102 THE MOODS OF THE VERBS. 

i. The Participle Past used absolutely (having no Auxiliary) 
always agrees with its Noun : 

Le combat fini, il se montre. The battle being over, he shows 

himself. 
Eux punts, les autres s'echappent. They being punished, the others 

escaped. 
Moi partie, dit-elle, vous rirez sans When I am gone, said she, no 
doute. doubt you will laugh. 

Ill, The Compound Form of the Participle Tast retains the 
same nature and is subject to the same rules, as the simple Participle 
Past: 

Les inquisiteurs ayant ete re- The Inquisitors having been re-es- 

tablis. . r . tablished 

Etant rentree dans la maison, elle She, having gone into the house, 

dit said.... 

Note.— Two Compound Participles Past following each other, the Auxiliary 
Verb is not repeated before the second. 

N*ayant jamais ni touche ni Having never touched nor given 
ordonnance. . , orders. . . . 



THE MOODS OF THE VERBS, 

(Single and Compound). 
1 —INFINITIVE. 

Tenses (single). Tenses (compound). 

PRESENT, PAST. 

Garder, to keep. Avoir garde, to have kept. 

PARTICIPLE PRESENT. COMPOUND PART PRESENT. 

Gardant, keeping, Ayant garde, having kept. 

PARTICIPLE PAST. 

Garde, kept t 



THE USE OF THE MOODS. 



103 



2.— INDICATIVE. 

PRESENT. PRETERITE INDEFINITE. 

Je garde, I keep. J'ai garde, I have kept 

IMPERFECT. PLUPERFECT. 

Je gardais, I kept. J' avals garde, I had kept. 

PRETERITE DEFINITE* PRETERITE ANTERIOR. 

Je gardal, I kept. J'eus garde, I had kept. 

FUTURE FUTURE ANTERIOR. 

Je garderai, I shall keep. J 'aural garde, I shall have kept. 

3.— SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRESENT. PRETERITE INDEFINITE. 

Que je garde, I may keep. Que f ale garde, I may have kept. 

PRETERITE DEFINITE. PRETERITE ANTERIOR. 

Queje gardasse, I might keep. Que feusse garde, I might have 

kept. 

4.— CONDITIONAL. 

PRESENT. ANTERIOR. 

Je garderals % I should keep. J'aurals garde, I should have kept. 

5.— IMPERATIVE. 
Garde! Keep! 



THE USE OF THE MOODS. 

Every Verb has certain forms which express the modus operandi, 
the Mood or manner, of performing the action which the Verb states, of 
suffering an action, or of being in a state or condition. This word modus, 
in colloquial French la mode (the fashion), is in Grammar the Mood 
of the Verb, and every Verb has five such Moods : 

The Infinitive — the Indicative — the Subjunctive — the Conditional 
and the Imperative. 



104 THE USE OF THE MOODS. 

1. — The Infinitive is so called because its meaning is not finite 
(Infinite), not limited by thoughts of Time, Number or Person. It is the 
mere Name of the Verb, and by it therefore, the Verb is mentioned in 
Dictionaries. Thus the Infinitive aller, to go, may be used with every 
Tense, Number or Person, and never changes : 



Je veux ) I wish ) 

Tu pouvais > aller. Thou wast able [• to go. 

11 pourra ) He will be able ) 

Nous voulumes ) We wished ^| 

Vous pourriez [• aller. You might be able > to go. 

Nepouvantpas ) Not being able J 

2. — The Indicative is that Mood of the Verb which affirms an action 
or a state, as actually taking place or existing. 

Dieu est eternel, Vhommeest mortel. God is eternal, Man is mortal. 
On dit qyCil est mort en effet. They say he is really dead. 

3. — The Subjunctive Mood, on the contrary, states not that which is, 
but that which may be, and is consequently contingent — dependent on 
another Verb. It is called Subjunctive because in the sentence it is 
invariably Subjoined to another, the principal part of the sentence, on 
which it depends — hence the fact that the Subjunctive Mood is always 
preceded by the Con j miction que, which connects it with its governing 
Verb. 

On soupgonne qu'il soit parti. They suspect he may have left. 

Voulez-vous qvCon fasse servir ? Do you want dinner to be served ? 

Note.— In Elliptic Sentences the principal Yerb may be omitted: 

Que Dieu soil beni ! (Jeprie que...) (I pray that) God be blessed ! 
Que Justice soit faite! {Je veux (I will that) Justice be done. 
que...) 

4t . — The Conditional Mood expresses an action done or suffered, or a 
state, that is dependent on the will of another : 

Je le ferais volontiers si le maitre y I would willingly do it, if the 

etait. master were there. 

SHlfaisait beau y nous irions tous. If it were fine weather, we would. 

all go. 



THE USE OF THE MOODS. 105 

5.— The Imperative is the Mood which commands, from a gentle 
suggestion or mere thought to an absolute order. It has, properly 
speaking, but one person, the Second Person (Singular and Plural). 

Aie patience, mon enfant, tout Be patient, child, all is well. 

va bien. 

Ayez pitie de nous, mesdames, et Take pity on us, ladies, and listen 

ecoutez-nous I to us ! 

The other persons, rarely used, are borrowed from the Present 
Subjunctive : 

Q ill ait son argent et quHl s'en Let him have his money and be 

aille ! gone ! 

Qu'ils /assent ce quHls veulent I Let them do what they choose I 



I. 
THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD, 

invariably expresses, not what is, but what may be — not a certainty but 
a contingency. As every contingency is dependent on some fact or act, 
the Subjunctive is always dependent on — subjoined to — another Verb, 
(expressed or understood) and connected with this Verb — the Principal 
Verb — by the conjunction que. 

Note.— The use of the Subjunctive is fast diminishing in French, as in all 
Modern Languages, especially since the French Revolution 1789, and is compara- 
tively rarely found in modern writers. The democratic spirit prevailing in 
society has a tendency to dispense with many of the fine distinctions used by the 
classic writers. 

Note.— Modern French writers show, moreover, a decided tendency to drop 
the Subjunctive of the Past Tense altogether. No one says or writes now-a-days 
que nous V embarrass ass ions or que vous le mesurassiez. The Subjunctive of 
the Present takes its place. 

The Subjunctive, from its nature (being dependent) cannot appear 
in Independent sentences, nor as the principal part of the sentence. The 
one exception to this rule is the Verb savoir, the Subjunctive of which 
que je sache appears, since the XVI Century, not subjoined, but 
independent : 



106 THE USE OF THE MOODS. 

Je ne sache pas quHl y ait eu detels I do not know that such men ever 

hommes. were. 

Je ne sache Hen de plus beau que I know nothing finer than her 

son sourire. smile. 

Note.— Queje sache, is often added to a sentence, to express this idea : If it 
is not as I state it, I do not know it: 

Ya-t-il du monde ? Personne, que Is anybody there ? No one, as far 

je sache. as I know. 

11 n 'a point ete ici queje sache. He has not been here, as far as I 

know. 

Note.— It must be borne in mind that in many Verbs the Subjunctive of 
the Present and that of the Past are alike, but in Prosody (and in old French 
prose) differ in this, that the Subjunctive of the Present counts but two syllables: 
que nous chan-tions, quevous chan-tiez, while the Subjunctive of the Past counts 
three syllables: que nous chan-ti-ons, quevous chan-ti-ez* 

The Use of the Subjunctive varies according to its place in a 
principal, or in a dependent sentence. 

I. In Independent Sentences it is used : 

1. — To express A wish, a prayer, or even a command, taking the 
place of the Imperative and hence supplying the 3rd persons of that 
Mood: 

Ainsi soit-il! A Dieu ne plaisel So be it (A men)! May God prevent ! 

Grand Men vous fasse ! Much good may it do you ! 

Que Vaventure te serve de lecon I May the occurrence serve you as a 

lesson ! 
Vive le Roi ! Vive la Charte ! Hurrah for the king ! Hurrah for 

the Constitution ! 

2. — To furnish an Animated Interjection : 

Moi queje lui annonce sa mortl That I should inform him of her 

death ! 
Qu' on ri> ait pas fait plus pour ce That they should not have done 
heros ! more for such a hero ! 

Note.— Occasionally the Subjunctive of the Past also occurs, though mainly 
withpZiii, with or without que: 



THE USE OF THE MOODS. 107 

Plut a Dieu quefeusseceplaisir! "Would to God I could have that 

pleasure ! 
Dut le del egaler le supplice a Even should God make the punish- 
r offense ! ment equal to the crime ! 

3.— To express a Concession or a condition : , 

Veille qui voudra — moi, je m'en- Let who will, sit up — I go' to 

dors ! sleep ! 

QuHl choisisse—d' Auguste on de Let him make his choice: Augustus 

Tibere I or Tiberius ! 

Note.— Occasionally such a supposition is introduced by au cas que, le can 
pose', &c: 

Pose que cela fut, que feriez-vous ? Suppose that were so, what would 

you do ? 
Je vous ecrirai au cas que cela I shall write you in case tha^ 
arrive. happens. 

4.— To state the Conclusion of a condition expressed or implied — 
generally in the Pluperfect : 

Qui Veut cru ? "Who would have thought so ! 

Wexd-ete le canon, Us Vempor- But for the artillery, they would 

t(ient. have been victorious . 

S'U eut ose, il sefut misl en colere. If he had dared, he would have 

become angry. 

II. In Dependent Sentences : 

1. — After Impersonal Verbs and such as are used impersonally — 
most of which, it will 1 e found, express some sentiment or opinion, as 
wish, joy, sorrow, doubt &c . : 

11 n'y a personne qui ne le sache. There is no one who does not 

know it. 
Helas ! Faut-il que je perde mes Alas ! Must I ruin my friends ? 

amis ! 
11 est temps qu'ilparaisse. It is time he should appear. 

Note.— These Verbs will, however, be followed by the Indicative when they 
express the reality of the dependent Verb : 



108 THE USE OF THE MOODS. 

II est done vrai qu'elle est sa So, it is true, that she is his 

cousine 9 cousin ? 

11 semble que ce n'est autre chose It seems it is nothing but a ruin. 

qu'une ruine. 
Qu'il te sufflse queje vis encore ! Let it suffice you, that I am 

still alive. 

Note:— In these eases the Subject (Pronoun) is not unfrequently 
omitted, e. g. 

Mieux voudrait qu'il perdit la vie. It would be better for him to lose 

his life. 
Bien lui apris queje n'aie pas Ste It was well for him, I was not at 
chez moi. home. 

2. — After Verbs expressive of certain states of mind, like fear or joy, 

marvel or pain, shame, indignation, &c. : 

* 
Je rrfetonne qu'il ne voie pas le I am surprised he does not see the 

danger. danger. 

tPai peur qu'il n'en ait trop dit. I fear he has said too much about it. 

Elle se plaint qu' on V ait calomniee. She complains of having been 

slandered. 

3. — After Verbs expressive of the will: approval or disapproval, 
command, prohibition, &c: 

II exige qu'on le fasse quand il le He insists upon its being done, 
veut. when he wants it. 

Que voulez-vous que je fasse ? What would you have me do? 

Empechez qu'un rival ne vous Do not let a rival get there before 
previenne ! you ! 

4.— It is used after Verbs expressive of feeling, (emotion), thinking 
&c, when they are negative or interrogative, or conditional, and 
occasionally even after affirmative Verbs of this kind : 

On pensait que e'etaient des They thought they were Gypsies. 

bohemiens. 
J'ignorais qyCellefut comedienne. I did not know she was an actress. 
Voit-on a mes yeux quej'aipleure? Do they see in my eyes that I have 

cried ? 

Note.— Here also the Indicative may follow, if a fact is stated: 



THE USE OF THE MOODS. 



109 



Je ne puis oublier qu'elle a port'e I cannot forget that she has borne 

moil nom. my name. 

On n'ignore pas qiCil a voulu se It is well known that he tried to 

tuer. kill himself. 

5. — In dependent sentences which determine Place or Time: 

H mourut avant qu'on Vait trouve. He died before he was found. 
Avant qiCil soit un mois, il s'en Before a month is over, he will 
repentira. repent . 

6. — After certain Indefinite Pronouns like quelque, quel que, quoi- 
que, &e. , because of the contingent meaning which they always give to 
the Verb : 

Quelque excellent que soit sa pra- However excellent his practice 

tique . . . may be . . . 

Quelle que soit sa naissance, elle est Whatever his birth may be, it is 

humaine. human. 



Note.— Only tout, which in such cases agrees in Gender and Number with 
the Noun which it Qualifies, may be followed by the Indicative also, when the 
Second Verb is positive: 



Tout auteur que je sois, je ne suis 

pas jaloux. 
Tout terrible qu'il est, je ne le 

crains point. 



Though I be an author, I am not 

jealous . 
Terrible as he is, I do not fear him. 



7. — After certain Conjunctions, not because of any force inherent in 
them, but because their meaning is such as almost invariably to render 
the action of the Verb uncertain or doubtful . They are : 



Ajin que 
a moins que 

avant que 

bien que 

de crainte ) 
depeur \ 

en cas ) 

au cas ) 

encore que 
jusqiCa ce que 
loin que 



que 



que 



in order that 

unless — 

before — 

though — 

for fear — 
in case — 



even though 

till 

far from 



que 



not that 



Non 
non pas 

nonobstant ) „ . .,, , a . 
mnlnrt f 2'" e notwithstanding 



malgre 
pose que 
pour que 
pourpeu que 
pourvu que 
qui que 
quel que 
quelque que 



admitting that 

in order — 

if ever so little — 

provided — 

whoever — 

whatever — • 

however — 



110 THE USE OF THE MOODS. 

Quelque chose que ) whatever that Si que however — 

quoique ) s { f an f es f q ue jf so k e — 

quoique although — soit que whether— or — 

sans que without — suppose que suppose — 

sipeuque however little — 

Note— The 3 Conjunctions expressive of fear, d, moins que, depeur que, and 
de crainte que, take the redundant ne, e. g.: 

A moins que vous ne le lui com- Unless you should order him 

mandiez to do so 

J'irai le trouver de crainte quHl ne I shall go to him for fear he might 

m'oublie. forget me. 

llsetutdepeurqu'onneVattrape. He was silent for fear of being 

caught. 

Note.— A few such Conjunctions may, however, be followed by the Indica- 
tive, when their meaning is such as to make the action of the Yerb not doubtful, 
but certain, e- g.: 

Agissez de maniere que vous obte- Act so that you may win the 

niez Vestime esteem of 

11 a agi de maniere qu'il a obtenu He has acted so that he has won 

Vestime the esteem of . . . . 

8. — After que when it represents a Full Conjunction after a 
negative sentence : 

H ne fait rien quHl ne Vait con- He does nothing without (first) 

sultee. consulting her. 

Je ne sors point dHci, qyCon ne me I shall not leave here, till they 

clfiasse I drive me away. 

9. — After Superlatives and words of like meaning, e. g.: seul, 
unique, premier, &c: 

Le meilleur usage qyCon puisse en The best use to be made of it, is.... 

faire 

Je suis le seul qui vous connaisse. I am the only one to know you. 

La premiere girafe qu'on ait\vue The first giraffe ever seen in 

en Amerique, America. 

10. — After words of an Indefinite Sense, like pas un, aucun, per- 
sonne, guere, <&c: 



THE USE OF THE MOODS. Ill 

Je cherche quelqu'un qui sache le I am looking for some one who 

faire. can do it. 

Je ne vois personne qui me soit I do not see any one I know. 

connu. 

Note. -Provided here also the second Verb is not affirmative: 

Je cherche quelqu'un qui est de mes I am looking for some one of my 

amis. friends. 

J'ai trouve un asile on je serai I have found a retreat where I 

tranquille. shall be quiet. 

Note.— Pas is omitted in such cases : a. When the Yerb in the Subjunctive 
limits a clause by pew or a negation: 

Je ne vois personne qui ne vous I see no one who does not know 
connaisse. you. 

Z>. With Verbs limiting an affirmative Question: 

Y a-t-il un homme qui ne s'en Is there a man who does not 

plaigne 9 complain ? 

Avez-vous un ami qui ne soit aussi Have you a friend who is not my 

des miens ? friend also ? 

Note.— The Subjunctive of the Present takes the place of the Future in 
dependent clauses : 

Le sceptre n'en sortira jusqu'd ce The sceptre shall not depart from 

que vienne it, till there come 

N'attendez pas queje vous reponde Do not wait till I reply to you on 
la-dessus. that subject. 

Note.— The Imperfect and even the Pluperfect Subjunctive of certain 
Verbs are used to express condition, by placing the Verb before its Subject: 

Us auraient resiste n'eut ete le They would have resisted but for 
canon. the Artillery. 

Dusse-je etre bl&me, je vous sou- Even if I were to be blamed for it, 
tiendrai. I shall sustain you. 

Note.— In a few rare cases si is used with the Pluperfect Subjunctive, to 
express condition: 

S'il m'eut cru, il rteut point fait If he had believed me, he would 
des vers. not have made verses. 



112 THE USE OF THE MOODS. 

Si feusse ete mediant, je serais If I had been wicked, I might 
peut-etre heureux. perhaps be happy. 

Note.— After certain locutions the Subjunctive is used to deny a cause: 

Ce rtest pas qyCelles rteussent de Not that they have not pleas- 

bonnes voix ant voices. . . . 

Loin qu'elle soit ma cousine, je ne So far from being my cousin, I do 
la connais me"mepas. not even know her. 



THE REDUNDANT NE, 



is the negative particle ne } which is added to Verbs, not negative, 
merely to emphasize their meaning. It occurs in both, principal and 
dependent sentences as follows : 

I. In Principal Sentences : 

1.— In questions beginning with qui or que emphatically asserting 
the contrary : 

Qui n'a ses torts ici-bas f Who has not his faults here on 

earth ? 
Que ne lui laissez-vous flnir sa Why did you not let him finish his 
periode ? sentence ? 

2. — After the Impersonal il tient, <&c. : 

II tint a peu de chose quHl ne Little was wanting and he fell. 

tomba. 
A quoi tient-il que nous ne par- What keeps us from starting? 

tions f 

3. — With restrictive expressions of time : 

Je ne vous verrai de trois jours. I shall not see you for three days. 

II y a six mois que je ne vous ai vu. It is six months since I saw you last. 

4. — In a few idiomatic phrases : 

A Dieu ntplaise ! God forbid ! 

Ne vous en deplaise ! May it not displease you ! 



THE USE OF THE MOODS. 



113 



II. In Dependent Sentences : 

1. — After Verbs expressing hindrance (empecher, eviter), doubt and 
denial (douter, nier, desesperer), after il s" en faut, pen s'en faut and the 
like, after the Conjunctions a moms que, de crainte que, and after many 
Comparatives : 

Pouvez-vous empecher qa'il ne se Can you prevent his ruining 

mine f himself ? 

Ne craignez-vous pas quHlne vous Do you not fear he may deceive 

trompe ? you ? 

Peu s'en estfallu qu'il ne soit tue I He came very near being killed. 

J'ai plus de domestiques qu'il ne I have more servants than I need. 

men faut. 

II par le autrement qu'il ne pense. He speaks differently from what 

he thinks. 

2. — The Subjunctive following sans que, or que as a substitute for a 
full Conjunction, has a redundant ne : 

Je n'irai point que tout ne soit I shall not go till all be ready. 
pret. 

QuoiquHl ne Vait vu et qu'il n'en Although he has not seen it and 

sache rien. , . . knows nothing of it ... 

3. — In negative relative clauses ne is used, without pas : 

Vous ne dites rien que je ne sache You say nothing but what I 

dejd, already know. 

Est-il tin seul qui ne tremble f Is there any one who does not 

tremble ? 

Concluding Note on the Use of the Subjunctive Mood : 

It must be borne in mind, that independent of certain classes of 
words which in fact, are always followed by the Subjunctive^ — 
mainly on account of their peculiar meaning — the Subjunctive 
must be used whenever Contingency is expressed or understood, 
and the Indicative whenever the Verb affirms or asserts : 



Subjunctive. 



Indicative. 



II pretend qu'on obeisse a ces lois. On pretend que Tliesee a paru dans 

VEpire. 
He insists upon such laws being It is asserted that Theseus has 
obeyed. been seen in Epirus. 



114 



Subjunctive. 



THE USE OF THE MOODS. 

Indicative. 



Est-il possible qu'il veuille Vepou- 

ser? 
Is it possible he wants to marry 

her? 

Je suis le seul qui vous connaisse 
ici I 

I am the only one to know you 

here. 

II suffit que vous le commandiez ! 
It is enough for you to give the 

order. 

U semble que le climat lui soit con- 
traire. 

It looks as if the climate did not 
suit him. 



Est-il possible que vous etes tou- 

jours souffrant f 
Is it possible you suffer still ? 

Le seul homme qui a survecu — c'est 
moi ! 

The only man who has survived — 
is myself ! 

QuHl te suffise queje vis encore! 

Let it be enough for thee that I 
am still alive! 

11 semble que ce n'est Hen qu'une 
mine. 

It seems that it is nothing but a 
ruin. 



CORRESPONDENCE OF TENSES. 

The writers of the last century have established a certain usage in 
what they call the harmonious and logical Sequence of Tenses. This 
Eule requires that in a sentence which consists of two parts, a principal 
part and a dependent part, and consequently contains two Verbs, the 
Tenses of these two Verbs must correspond with each other in a certain, 
fixed manner. This correspondence or sequence of tenses demands that) 

The Present and the Future in the independent part of the sen- 
tence, must be followed by the Present Tense in the dependent part, 
and 

The Past and the Conditional in the primary Verb, must be 
followed by the Past Tense in the secondary Verb : 



Je veux 
Je voudrai 

Je voidais 
Je votdiis 
Je i^oudrais 



que tu le f asses. 



que vous le fissiez. 



I want 

I shall want 



i thee to do it. 

I wanted ^ 

I wanted > you to do it. 

I should want j 



THE USE OF THE MOODS. 115 

If the Subjunctive occur in the second part of the sentence, the 
Present Tense will express Incomplete Action — the Past Tense: Complete 
Action ; and the Correspondence, fully developed, will produce these 
sequences : 

Incomplete Action. Complete Action. 

Present: Je crains ~) Je crains 

Pret. Indef*: tPaieraint [qu'il ne J'aicraint qu'il ne 

Future: Je craindrai \ vienne Je craindrai \ soit venu. 

Comp. Future: J'aurai craint J J'aurai craint 

Imperfect: Je craignais } qu'il ne Je craignais } qu'il nef fit 
Pluperfect : J avals craint ) vienne. J' avals craint ) venu. 

Pret. Definite: Jeus craint ) ,., J 'eus craint ) ^ /fli 

Conditional: Je craindrais [ ?Z.™ „ Je craindrais I qu une J ul 



Cond. Past: J'aurais craint J menne - J f aurais craint \ venv " 

Note.— The Imperative is subject to the same rule: 

Prends garde qu'on ne te voie ! Take care not to be seen ! 

Ne vous sonvenez plus qu'il vous Do not remember any longer that 
ait offense ! he offended you ! 

Note.— The Subjunctive itself is also subject to this rule : 

Plaise a Dieu qu'il vienne tot I Would to God he come soon ! 

Pint a Dieu qu'elle vint ! Please God she might come ! 

Deviations from the General Rule occur frequently, but always 
within these limits : Transitions from Primary to Secondary Tenses are 
permitted — but transitions from Secondary to Primary Tenses are very 
rare. 

J'ai empeche qu'il ne fit une I prevented his making a great 

betise ! blunder . 

H s'est enfuipour qu'on ne le vit ! He fled so as not to be seen. 

1, — The Historical Present is, very naturally, treated as a Past 
Tense : 

U suit son parti quoiqu'il Vefit He follows his party though it 
fait souffrir. made him suffer. 



116 THE USE OF THE MOODS. 



f 



2. — The secondary Tenses of avoir, etre and devoir, used in tli<> 
Subjunctive Past to express Concession or Condition, may be followed 
by the Subjunctive Present : 

Le singe, fut-il vetu de pourpre, est The monkey, even when clothed 
toujours le singe. in purple, is still a monkey. 

Dut eela vous fdcher, il faut que je Even if it were to make you angry, 
le dise. I must say so. 

3. — Secondary Tenses may be followed by the Subjunctive Present, 
when it expresses general truths : 

C'etait une des plus belles fetes que This was one of the finest festivals 
faie vus. I have seen. 

Dieu a voulu que nous soyons tous God has decreed we should all be 
mortels. mortal. 

or when we wish to express a Future after afln que, bien que and 
the like : 

Vous avez ete trop peu sage pour You have been too imprudent for 
que je me fie a vous de n ouveau. me to trust you again . 

4. — Sometimes the second Verb appears in the Subjunctive Present 
after the Past Tense in the first Verb, when it depends on a condition: 

Je doute que vous le fissiez si je I doubt whether you would do it, 
vous disais de le faire. if I were to tell you to do it. 

J'ai peur qiCil ne jouat, sHl avait I fear he would play, if he had 
de Vargent. money. 

5. — The Conditional is sometimes followed by the Present Subjunc- 
tive to denote that a past act continues into the Present, and by the 
Preterite Subjunctive to denote that it is completed in the Present : 

On dirait qu'il soit aveugle. You would say he was blind. 

On croirait que le del veuille de- One would think Heaven wanted 
truire ces lieux. to destroy these places. 



U-r 



AN ALPHABETICAL LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL 

IRREGULAR YERBS. 

Note.— Verbs compounded of a verb and preposition are conjugated like the 
verb with which they correspond ; thus, comprendre, like prendre, conserire like 
e'crire (the e of ewire is a euphonic letter), etc. 

Eire added to the participle, signifies that the Compound Tenses are con- 
jugated with that auxiliary; as je suis alle, etc. 

Absoudre, to absolve. Absolvant, absous, fern, absoute — J' absous — 
J'absolvais — J'absoudrai — J'absoudrais — Absous — Que f absolve. 

Acquerir, to acquire. Acquerant, acquis — J'acquiers, s, t; nous 
acquerons, ez, Us acquierent — Jacquerais — J 'acquis — J'acquerrai 
J' aequerrais—Acquiers — Que facquiere, es, e, acquerions, iez, 
acquierent — Que facquisse. 

Aller, to go. Allant, alle (Mre) — Je vais, vas, va ; nous allons, ez, 
Us vont — J'allais — J'allai — JHrai—JHrais — Va — Que faille, es, 
e; allions, ez, aillent—Que j' allasse. 

Assaillir, to assault. Assaillant, assailli — J y assaille — J'assaillais — 
J'assaillis —J y assaillirai — J' assaillir ais — Assaille — Que fassaille 
— Que f assaillisse. 

Asseoir (s'), to sit down. S'asseyant, assis (Stre) — Je m'assieds — Je 
m'asseyais — Je m'assis — Je m y assierai—Je m'assierais — Assieds- 
toi — Queje m'asseye — Queje m'assisse. 

Hattre, to beat. Battant, battu — Je bats — Je battais — Je battis — 
Je battrai — Je battrais — Bats — Queje batte — Queje b&ttisse. 

Moire, to drink. Buvant, bit — Je bois, s, t ; buvons, ez, boivent — Je 
buvais—Je bus — Je boirai — Je boirais—Bois — Queje boive, es, e; 
buvions, iez, boivent — Queje busse. 

Bouillir, to boil. Bouillant, bouilli — Je bous — Je bouillais — Je 
bouillis — Je bouillirai — Je bouillirais — Bous — Queje bouille — Que 
je bouillisse. 

Conclure, to conclude. Concluant, conclu — Je conclus — Je concluais 
Je conclus— Je conclurai—Je conclurais — Conclus — Queje conclue 
— Queje conclusse. 



xld IRREGULAR VERBS. 

Conduire, to conduct. Conduisant, conduit — Je conduis — Je con* 
duisais — Je conduisis—Je conduirai — Je conduirais— Conduis— 
Queje condnise — Queje eonduisisse. 

Con fire, to pickle. Conflsant, confis—Je conflsais — Je confis — Je 
conflrai — Je conflrais — Confis — Queje confise— Queje confisse. 

Connaitre, to know. Connaissant, connu—Je connais — Je connais- 
sais—Je connus — Je connaitrai — Je connaitrais — Connais — Que 
je connaisse — Queje connusse. 

Coudre, to sew. Cousant, cousu—Je couds—Je cousais—Je cousis — 
Je coudrai—Je coudrais — Couds—Que je couse — Queje cousisse. 

CouriVy to run. Courant, count— Je cours — Je eourais — Je counts — 
Je courrai — Je courrais — Cours — Queje coure—Queje count sse, 

Croire, to believe. Croyant, cru — Je crois — Je croyais — Je cms — Je 
croirai — Je croirais — Crois— Que je croie — Queje Crusse. 

Oueillir, to gather. Cueillant, cueilli — Je cueille—Je cueillais—Je 
cueillis — Je cueillerai — Je cueillerais — Cueille — Que je cueille— 
Qne je cueillisse. 

Dire, to tell. Disant, dit—Je dis, s, t; disons, dites* disent — Je 
disais — Je dis — Je dirai — Je dirais — Dis—Que je dise — Queje 
disse. 

Ecrire, to write. Ecrivant, ecrit — J'ecris — J' ecrivais—J'ecrivis — 
J'ecrirai —J'ecrirais—Ecris — Que fecrive — Que j'ecrivisse. 

Envoy er, to send. Envoy ant, envoys — J'envoie—J'envoyais — J'en- 
voyai — J'enverrai — J'enverrais — Envoie — Que j y envoie — Que 
j' envoy asse. 

Faire, to make, to do. Faisant, fait — Je fats, s, t ; faisons, faites, 
font — Je faisais — Je fis — Je feral — Je ferais — Fais — Queje fasse 
— Queje fisse. 

Fallciv, to be necessary. Fallu — 17 faut — II fattait — II fallut — 11 
faudra — 11 faudrait — QuHl faille — QuHl fallut. 

Fuir, to run away. Fuyant, fui — Je fuis — Je fuyais — Je fuis — Je 
fuirai — Je fuirais — Fu is — Que je fuie — Que je fuisse. 



* Dire and redire make in the second person plural of the Indicative present 
and of the Imperative dites and redites; but the other verbs, compounded of dire, 
follow the general termination— contredisez, de'disez, interdisez, predisez. 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 119 

Hair, to hate Haissant, hat — Je hais, s, t; haissons, Jurissez, 
haissent — Je ha'issais — Je hats — Je ha'irai — Jehairats — Hais — 
Queje ha'isse — Queje hatsse. 

Lire, to read. Lisa-tit, lu — Je lis — Je lisais — Je Ins — Je lirai — Je 
lirais — Lis — Queje Use — Queje lusse. 

Luite, to shine. Luisant, lui — II luit — II luisait — Illuisit — Je 
luirai—Je luirais — Queje luise. 

Maudire, to curse. Maudissant, maudit — Je maudis — Je maudissais 
Je maudis — Je maudirai — Je maudirais — Maudis — Que je mau- 
disse — Que je maudisse. 

Mettre, to put. Mettant, mis — Je mets — Je mettais — Je mis — Je 
mettrai — Je mettrais — Mets — Queje mette — Que je misse. 

Moudre, to grind. Moulant, moidu — Je mouds — Je moulais — Je 
moidus — Je moudrai — Je moudrais — Mouds — Que je moule — Que 
je moidnsse* 

Mourir, to die. Mourant. mort (Mre)—Je meurs, s, t ; mourons, ez, 
meurent — Je mourais — Je mourns — Je mourrai — Je mourrais — 
Meurt — Que je meure, es y e; mourions, iez, meurent — Queje 
mournsse. 

Monvoir, to move. Mouvdnt, mn — Je mens, s, t; mouvons, ez s 
meuvent — Je mouvais — Je mns — Je mouvrai — Je mourrais — 
Metis — Que je meuve, es, e; mouvions, iez, meuvent — Que je 
mnsse. 

Naitre, to be born. Naissant, ne (Stre)—Je nais — Jenaissais — Je 
naquis — Je naitrai — Je naitrais — Nais — Que je naisse — Que je 
naquisse. 

Nuire, to hurt. Nuisant, nui. The rest like conduire, page 118. 

Tartir, to depart. Part ant , parti — Je pars — Je partais—Je partis 
— Je partirai — Jepartirais — Pars— Queje parte — Que je partisse. 

Plain'lre, to pity. Plaignant, plaint— Je plains— Je plaignais—Je 
plaignis — Je plaindrai—Je plaindrdis — Plains— Que je plaigne — 
Que je plaignisse* 

Pla i re, to please. Plaisant, plu—Je plais — Je pla isa is — Je plus —Je 
plairai—Je plairais— Plais— Que je plaise — Que je plusse. 

Pleuvoir, to rain. Pleuvdnt, pin— 11 pleut—Ilpleuvait—Ilplut—ll 
pleuvra — H pleuvrdit—Qu'il pleuve — Quiljrtut. 



120 IRREGULAR VERBS. 

Pourvoir, to provide. Pourvoydnt, pourvu — Je pourvois—Je pour- 
voyais Je pourvus—Je pourvoirai - Je pourvoirais—Pourvois— 
Que je pourvoie — Que je pourvu sse. 

Pouvoir, to be able. Pouvant, pu - Je puis or je peuvc, tupeusc, t ; 
pouvons, ez, peuvent — Je pouvais — Je pus — Je pourrai — Je 
pourrais—Queje puisse—Queje pusse. 

Prendre, to take. Prendnt, pris—Je prends, ds, d; prenons, ez, 
prennent — Je prenais—Je pris — Je prendrai — Je prendrais — 
Prends— Que je prenne, es, e ; prenions, iez, pyrennent — Que je 
prises. 

Prevaloir, to prevail . Like valoir, except Subjunctive present : que 

jeprevale, etc. 
Prevoir, to foresee. Like voir, except je prevoirdi, je prevoir ais, 

Hesoudre, to resolve. Resolvant, resolu and resous—Je resous—Je 
resolvais—Je resohis—Je resoudrdi—Je resoudrais — Resous — Que 
je resolve — Queje resolu sse. 

Hire, to laugh. Riant, ri—Je ris—Je rials — Je ris—Je rirai- Je 
rirais — Ris - Que je rie—Que je risse. 

Ilompre, to break. Rompant, rompu — Je romps — Je rompais — Je 

rompis—Je romprai — Je romprais — Romps— Que je rompe — Que 

je rompisse. 
Savoir, to know. Sachant, su—Je sais, s, t; savons, ez, savent— 

Je savais — Je sus — Je saurdi — Je saurdis — Sache ; saehons, 

sachcz — Queje sache — Queje susse. 

Seoir, to be becoming, to suit. Seyant — IL sied — 11 seyait—R sierd 

- n sierdit—Qu'il seye. 
Seoir, to sit. Seant, sitting — Sis (situated). 
Suffire, to suffice. Sufflsdnt, sujfi. Like conflre. 

Suivre, to follow. Suivdnt, suivi — Je suis—Je suivdis — Je suivis— 
Je suivrai—Je suivrais — Suis — Queje suive -Queje suivisse. 

Taire, to conceal. (Se tdire, to be silent). Like plaire. 

Traire, to milk. Trayant, trait— Je trais—Je trayais — Je trairai — 
Je trairais-Trais— Queje traie. 

Vaincre, to vanquish. Vainquant, vaincu — Je vaincs — Je vainqudis 
Je vainquis—Je vaincrai — Je vainer ais— Vaincs — Que je vainque 
Queje vainquisse, 



AGREEMENT OF THE VERB WITH ITS SUBJECT. 121 

Valoir, to be worth. Volant, valw—Je vaux—Je valais—Je valus — 
Jevaudrai—Jevaudrais. No Imperative. Que je vaille, es,e; 
valions, iez, vaillent—Que je valusse. 

Venir, to come. Venant, venu—Je viens—Je venais—Je vius Je 
viendrai—Je viendrais — Viens— Queje vienne—Queje vinsse. 

VHir, to clothe. Vetant, vetu — Je vets— J e vetais—Je vetis—Je 
vetirai— J evetirais— Vets— Queje vete— Queje vetisse. 

Vivre, to live. Vivant, vecu — Je vis—Je vivais—Je vecus — Je 
vivrai—Je vivrais—Vis — Queje vive— Queje vecusse. 

Voir, to see. Voyant, vu — Je vois—Je voyais — Je vis—Je verrai — 
Je vermis — Vois — Queje vote — Queje v^sse. 

Vouloir, to be willing. Je veux, as, t ; voidons, ez, veident — Je 
voulais — Je voidus — Je voudrai—Je voudrais—Veuille, veuillez 
or veux, voulez — Que je veuille, es y e ; voulions, iez, veuillent — 
Queje voulusse. 



THE AGEEEMENT OF THE VERB WITH ITS 

SUBJECT. 

The Verb agrees with its Subject in Person and in Number. The 
latter rule simply means that if the Subject be a Singular, the Verb also 
will be in the Singular, if a Plural, the Verb also will be in the Plural. 

Son pere est mort , sa mere vit en- His father is dead, his mother is 

core. still alive. 

Ses parents sont morts tous deux. Both of his parents are dead. 

But the agreement of the Verb with its Subject in Person, is subject 
to a rule, called the Rule of Grammatical Precedence, and amounts to 
this, that the Verb agrees by preference with the 1st person, if there be a 
subject in this person, then with the 2d person, if there be no Subject 
of the first, but only one of the 2d p., and finally the Verb will appear 
in the 3d person, unless a Subject of the 1st or 2d person be present. 
Moreover, when two or more persons appear as the Subject of one Verb, 
the latter will again appear by preference agreeing with the 1st person, 
and with the 2d in preference to the 3d, e. g. : 



122 AGREEMENT OF THE VERB WITH ITS SUBJECT. 

1st p. Ma femme et moi viendrons My wife and I will come to-night 

vous voir ce soir. to see you. 

2d p. Ton frere et toi serez ici, je Thy brother and thyself will be 

Vesper e. here, I hope. 

2d p. Vous et luipouvez Vesperer. You and he may hope for it. 

3d p. Lui et elle seront recompen- He and she will be rewarded. 



When the Subject consists of several Nouns which are synonymous 
or in gradation, or summed up in a final word, the Verb remains in the 
Singular : 

Son courage, sa bravoure, sou intre- His courage, his valor, his daring 

pidite nous etonna. surprised us. 

Une seule parole, un sourire, un A single word, a smile, a glance 

regard suffira. will be enough. 

Son temps, son bien, sa vie, tout He gave his time, his wealth, his 

fut donne a la patrie. life, all to his country, 

A verb having for its Subject two Nouns connected by ou (or) will 
be in the Singular, if the two Nouns exclude each other, but in the 
Plural, if they act jointly, though alternately, e. g. : 

C'est Ciceron ou Socrate qui Va It is either Cicero or Socrates who 

dit. , said so. 

Le temps ou la mort sont nos re- Time or Death are our remedies . 

medes. 

Note.— If the two Nouns designate persons, the Yerb is always in the 
Plural, e. g. : 

C'est lui ou moi qui devrons le He or I will have to do it. 

faire. 
Lui ou elle repondront a votre He or she will answer your letter. 

lettre. 

The same rule applies to Verbs, the subjects of which are connected 
by ni, e. g. : 

Ni Vun ni V autre n'est mon ami. Neither the one nor the other is my 

friend. 
Ni la force ni la douceur ne Vebran- Neither force nor gentleness moved 
lerent him. 



AGREEMENT OF THE VERB WITH ITS SUBJECT. 123 

When the Subject of the Verb is un followed by a Genitive, the 
form of the Verb depends upon the precise meaning of the sent- 
ence, e. g. : 

Est-ce un des soldats qui V a fait ? Is it one of the soldiers who has 

done it ? 
Est-ce un des soldats qui V out fait f Is it one of (those) soldiers who 

did it ? 

Note.— Plus d'un is always followed by the Singular, by special rule, e. g. : 

Plus d\m ami m'en avait averti. More than one friend had warned 

me against it. 

When a Collective Noun is the subject of the Verb, and consists of 
one word only, the Verb agrees with its form, unmindful of the 
meaning, e. g. : 

Le comite des finances a ete in- The Finance Committee was in- 

struit. . . . structed 

Le peuple a decide par acclama- The people decided by unanim- 

tion . . . ity 

If the Collective Noun, however, is followed by another Noun with 
de before it, the meaning of the sentence determines the form of the 
Verb, e. g. : 

La plupart du monde ne s'en sou- Most people do not mind it. 

cie pas. 
Quantite de gens ont repete cela. A number of people have repeated 

that. 

The Verb always agrees with the first part of a Collective General 
and with the second word of a Collective Partitive, the former always 
preceded by the Definite Article, the latter by the Indefinite Article : 

La pluralite des mondes nous est Most of those worlds are unknown 

inconnue. to us. 

Une bande de voleurs ont pille le A gang of robbers pilfered the 

village. village. 

Adverbs of quantity, followed'by Nouns in the Plural, likewise 
determine the form of the Verb by the meaning of the sentence, e. g. : 



124 THE COMPLEMENT OF VERBS. 

Beauconp des elevesj onent au lieu Many of the scholars play instead 

d'etudier. of studying. 

Ce pen de mots sufflt pour ranimer These few words sufficed to en- 

Varmee. courage the army. 

When the Relative Pronoun qui is the Subject of a Verb, its 
Antecedent determines the form of the Verb, e. g.: 

C'est nous qui souffrons de votre It is we who suffer from your 
peu de sagesse. want of prudence. 

Est-ce vous qui lui donnez cet Is it you who set him such an 
exemple f example? 

C'etaient eux qui vous enpriaient. It was they who asked you for it. 

But if the Antecedent is followed by an Attribute with an Article 
or with a limiting Adjective, the Verb agrees with the attribute, e. g. 

Vous parlez comme un homme qui You talk like a man who under- 

Ventend. stands it. 

Je crois queje suis le premier qui I think I am the first who spoke 

en ait parte ! of it. 

Note.— The Ye vhetre with ce for its Subject remains Singular before the 
1st and 2d person, and is Plural only before a Noun or a Pronoun of the 3d 
person, e. g. : 

Ce sont mes amis, ce sont eux... These are my friends ; it is they... 

C'est nous qui Vavons vu de nos It is we who have seen it our- 

propres yeux. selves. 

]Est-ce bien vous qui V avezdeeouvert? Is it really you who discovered it ? 



THE COMPLEMENT OF VEEBS. 

The Verb may have two Objects, a direct and an indirect object, 
which are called its Complement. Usage has established certain 
rules concerning the form of the objects, of which the following are the 
most importan : 

1. — Verbs which hav^ a lifeless thing for their Direct Object are apt 
to use the person as their Indirect Object (Dative, by means of a). 



THE COMPLEMENT OF VERBS. 



125 



Donner guelqve chose & 


quelqu'un 


envoyer 


a 


a 


enseigner 
apprendre 

fa ire 


a 
a 
tt 


a 
a 
a 


pardonner 
demander 


tt 
it 


it 
tt 


devoir 
payer 
emprunter 
enlever 


tt 

tt 
tt 

a 


tt 
tt 
tt 
a 


oter 


a 


tt 


prendre 

voler 


a 
it 


it 

a 


fournir 


tt 


a 


reprocher 


a 


a 



To give something to some one. 

— send " " 

— teach somebody something. 

— inform " of " 

— do something for somebody. 



— forgive " 

— ask 

— owe " 

— pay " 

— borrow " 

— take 

— take away * ( 

— take 

— steal " 

— furnish " 



to 

of 

to 

to 
from 
from 
from 
from 
from 

to 

reproach somebody with some- 
thing. 



Je lid apprendrai tout ce qui est 

arrive. 
On leur a pardonne le tort quHls 

ont fait. 
On m'a vole ma montre. 



I shall tell him everything that 

has happened. 
They have forgiven them the 

wrong they have committed. 
They have stolen my watch. 



Note.— Some of these Verbs have, however, different constructions with 
different meanings, e. g. 

Demander, having only one object, a person, makes it its Direct 

Object, e. g. 

On a demande M. votre pere. They have asked for your father. 

Payer, has the same peculiarity, e. g. 



J'ai paye mon taillenr, mais les 
antres creanciers I 



I paid my tailor, but my other 
creditors ? 



Devoir, on the contrary, always makes the person the Indirect 
Object, e. g. 

Je dois Vhabit et le gilet au I owe the tailor for coat and waist- 
tailleur. coat. 

Emprunter generally makes the person the Indirect Object with 
d, and the thing with de, e.g. 



126 



THE COMPLEMENT OF VERBS. 



J'ai emprunte ce livre de mon I borrowed this book from my 

camarade. comrade. 

La lune emprunte sa lumiere du The moon borrows its light from 

soleil. the sun. 

Enlevor, oter and prendre have similar constructions : 



On lui a enleve tout son oxen. 

llfaut enlever Vecorce de Varbre. 
Otez ce couteau a V enfant I 

Neprenezpas le bien d'autrui! 



They have carried off his whole 

property. 
You must strip the tree of its bark. 
Take the knife away from the 

child ! 
Do not take other people's property! 



Voler with the person as its Direct Object means 'to rob,' when a 
thing is the Direct Object 'to steal.' 

Ces gens ont vole les voyageurs. These people robbed the travellers. 

On lui a vole sa bourse pleine They have stolen her purse, full of 
tfor. gold. 

Foumir, also, when its Direct Object is a person, means : to 
supply, to provide somebody in the usual process of things — when the 
Direct Object is a thing, it means : to supply by special act, e. g. 

H s'est enrichi en fournissant He has grown rich by supplying 

Varmee deble. the army with wheat . 

Je lui aifourni des renseignements. I procured him some information . 

2. — Verbs which have a person for their Direct Object, generally 
use de before the thing which is the Indirect Object, e. g. 

Accuser quelqiCun de quelaue chose. To accuse somebody of something. 



bldmer 


a a 


charger 


tt «< 


informer 


a it 


prier 


" defaire " 


remercier 


de " 


On Va accuse de lese-majeste 



— blame 

— commission 

— inform 

— request 

— thank 



Elle m y aprie de venir la voir. 



for 
with 

of 
to do 

for 

He has been charged with High 

Treason. 
She asked me to come and see her. 



3.— Verbs which have an Indirect Object in the form of a Reflective 
Pronoun, make the thing their Direct Object, e. g. 



THE COMPLEMENT OF VERBb. 



127 



S'arroger (a soi) le droit de. . .. 
se donner la peine de 

— chauffer les pieds. 
— faire mal. 

~-rappeler quelque chose, 
— proposer ' * 

— rendre compte de " 

Ne vous donnez pas la peine de 

revenir. 
Elle se rappelle tous ces details . 



To claim (for one's self) the right 

— take the trouble. . , . [to. . . . 

— warm one's feet. 

— hurt one's self. 

— recall something. 

— purpose. 

— account for, to one's self. 

Do not take the trouble to come 

back again ! 
She remembers all these details. 



4. — Verbs, on the other hand, with a Reflective Pronoun as their 
Direct Object, generally govern the Indirect Object by de, e. g. 



To abstain. 

— acquit one's 

— suspect, [self. 

— undertake. 



S'abstenir de 

— acquitter de 
Se defter de 

— charger de 

— demettre de — resign. 

— desister de — leave off. 

11 s'est bien acquitte de ses devoirs, 

Nous nous sommes charges detout, 



Se douter de 
S'emparer de 
Se passer de 

— servir de 

— souvenir de 

— tromper de 



To suspect. 

— seize upon. 

— do without. 

— make use of. 

— remember. 

— be mistaken in. 
He has acquitted himself well of 

his duties. 
We have undertaken everything. 



Note.— All genuine Pronominal Yerbs have the Reflective Pronoun for 
their Direct Object, s'arroger alone excepted, 

5. — Compound Yerbs, consisting of a Verb and a Noun, have 
similar rules : 

a. Those formed of avoir and a Noun have de before their Com- 
plement, except avoir dispute avec quelqu'un, to quarrel with some one, 
and avoir mal a, to feel pain at 

Nous avons peur d'arriver trop We are afraid of coming too late . 

tard. 
Elle cut raison de vous le refuser. She was right to refuse it to you. 

5. Those formed of demander, donner, faire, rendre, porter, 
vendre, and tenir with a Noun, are followed by d. 

On nous a demande pardon a nous We have been asked pardon, we. 

autres. 

Us out rendu compte a leurs They rendered an account of it to 

superieurs. their superiors. 



128 THE COMPLEMENT OP VEPBS. 

c. The Verbs donner lieu, faire mention, faire part, rendre 
compte and rendre raison may have, besides the person, an additional 
Indirect Object preceded by de, e. g. 

Bn'a jamais donne lieu a per sonne He has never given cause to any- 

de se plaindre. one to complain. 

It faut leur faire part de la mort They must be informed of their 

de Voncle. uncle's death. 

6. — Neuter Yerbs, expressive of physical or mental direction, require 
de before their Object. Such Yerbs are venir, penser, rever, so?iger 9 &c. 

Ce mot vient du latin. This word comes from the Latin. 

11 ne fait que rever au bonheur de He does nothing but dream of 
la voir. the happiness of seeing her. 

Note.— Penser, as an Active Verb, meaning 'to judge,' and rever and songer, 
meaning 'to dream,' are used with de. e. g. 

Que pensez-vous de cette affaire What do you think of this horrible 

atroee ? affair ? 

J'ai songe de cela avant de Vap- I dreamt of that before I heard 

prendre. of it. 



THE PLACE OF THE COMPLEMENT 

is after the Verb, except when it is in the form of a Conjunctive 
Personal Pronoun, when it will, of course, precede the Verb. The 
Direct Object precedes the Indirect Object, unless it is accompanied by 
a Relative sentence or a lengthened Attribute, when it will follow the 
Indirect Object : 

J y enverrai ces livres a M. votre I will send these books to your 

frere. brother. 

But : J'enverrai d M. votre frere I will send your brother the books 

les livres qvCil trCa demandes. he has asked for. 

Note.— The Indir. Object must, however, precede the Dir. Object when the 
regular position might create ambiguity, e. g. 

Tdchez de ramener, par la dou- Try to bring back by gentleness, 
ceur ces esprits egares. these erring minds. 



THE COMPLEMENT OF VERBS. 129 

While another order of words would produce this meaning : 

Tdchez de ramener ces esprits Try to bring back these minds err- 
eyares par la douceur. ing by gentleness. 

Note.— Two Complements of the same Verb must not differ, but be of the 
same nature, e. g. 

Not : It aime lejeu et a etudier. He likes to play and study. 
But : 11 aime lejeu et V etude. 
Or : U aime ajouer et a etudier. 

Note.— When one Verb has two Complements, one direct and the other 
indirect, the Noun follows the first Verb and is expressed as a Pronoun with the 
Second Verb, e. g. 

11 aime son maitre et lui obeit. He loves and obeys his master. 

H assista d la seance et en fit le He was present at the meeting and 
rapport. reported it. 

It must not be forgotten that Verbs which have a single Noun for 
their complement vary in the Preposition which connects them with 
their Object, e. g. 

Tenser de, which means to (think) judge of a person or a thing. 

What do you think of the new Que pensez-vous dunouveauroman 
novel by Ouida ? par Ouida ? 

Pettser ci, on the contrary, means to (think) remember some one 
or something : 

Je nepense jamais a ma mere sans I never think of my mother with- 
pleurer. out tears. 

Joner, to play, is followed by de or d according to the kind of play, 
which it designates : 

Jouez-vous du violon ou de la Do you play on the violin or the 

flute? flute? 

Je ne fais que pincer de la harpe I only play on the harp or the 

ou de la guitare. guitar. 

Note.— To play on the piano is rendered by toucher, (not jouer) du piano. 
Aimez-vous ajouer a la crosse ? Do you like to play cricket ? 



130 GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 

Non, monsieur, faime infiniment No, sir, I like vastly better to play 
mieux joner aux echecs. chess. 

Elle passe ses soirees a jouer aux She spends her evenings playing 
cartes. cards. 

Hepondre a means to answer a person or a question, &c, while 
repondre de means to be responsible for somebody, e. g. 

Lui avez-vons repondu que si ? Did you answer him yes ? 

Allez-vous repondre de ce jeune Will you be responsible for this 
homme ? young man ? 



GOVEENMENT OF VEEBS. 

A number of Verbs, from their peculiar meaning, or merely from 
established usage, are followed by another Verb in the Infinitive, 
directly i. e. without the aid of a Preposition. Others require to be con- 
nected with the second Verb by the aid of the Preposition de, others by 
a, and still others are followed by de or d with varying meaning. 

Thus it is said : 
II va nous reconduire chez nous. He is going to see us home, 

without a Preposition to connect oiler and reconduire, but 
II vous prie de le lui pardonner, He asks you to forgive him for it, 

where prier is connected with pardonner by de, and 
H hesite a s'en alter y He hesitates to go away. 

where a connects hesiter and aller. 
It commence a s'y habituer, He begins to get used to it. 

and 
U commence de vieillir unpen, He begins to age a little. 

where commencer is united with habituer by a, but with vieillir by 
de, with a slight difference of meaning. 



GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 



131 



1. 
LIST OF VERBS 



FOLLOWED BY THE INFINITIVE WITHOUT PREPOSITION, 



Accourir, 


to run. 


Observer, 


to notice, to observe 


Aimer mieux, 


— prefer. 


Oser, 


— dare. 


Aller, 


— go. 


Paraitre, 


— seem. 


Apercevoir, 


— perceive. 


Penser, 


— think, to fancy 


Assurer, 


— assure. 


Pouvoir, • 


— be able. 


Avouer, 


— confess. 


Preferer, 


— prefer. 


Compter, 


— intend. 


Pretendre, 


— pretend . 


Confesser, 


— confess. 


Protester, 


— protest. 


Courir, 


— run. 


Rappeler (se), 


— remember. 


Croire, 


— believe . 


Rapporter, 


— report. 


Daigner, 


— deign. 


Reconnadre, 


— acknowledge. 


Declarer, 


— declare. 


Regarder, 


— look at. 


Desirer, 


— desire. 


Retourner, 


— return. 


Devoir, 


— be obliged. 


Revenir, 


— come back . 


ieoxder, 


— hear, to listen . 


Savoir, 


— know. 


Entendre, 


— hear. 


Sembler, 


— seem. 


Envoyer, 


— send. 


Sentir } 


— feel. 


Esperer, 


— hope. 


Souhaiter, 


— wish. 


Faire, 


— make. 


Soutenir, 


— maintain. 


Falloir, 


— be necessary. 


Temoigner, 


— testify. 


Imaginer (s'), 


— imagine. 


Vcdoir mieux, 


— be better. 


Laisser, 


— let, to suffer. 


Venir, 


— come . 


Mener, 


— take, to lead. 


Voir, 


— see. 


Nier, 


— deny. 


Voidoir, 


— be willing. 



LIST OF VERBS 

FOLLOWED BY THE INFINITIVE WITH THE PREPOSITION A. 



Abaisser (s y ), to stoop. 

Aboutir, — end in. 

Accorder (s'), — agree. 

Accoutumer, — accustom . 

Acharner (s), — strive. 

Admettre, — admit, to permit. 



Aguerrir (s'), to become inured. 
Aider, — help in. 

Aimer, — like, to love. 

Appliquer (s'), — endeavor, to 

apply. 
Apprendre, — learn. 



132 



GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 



Appreter (s'), to 

Aspirer, — 

Assigner, — 

Assujettir (s') , — 

Attacker (s'), — 

Attendre (s'), — 

Attendre, — 
Augmenter(s' > ), — 

Autoriser, — 

Avilir(s'), — 

Avoir, — 

Avoir peine, — 

Balancer, — 

Borner (se), — 

Ckercker, — 

Complaire, — 

Concourir, — 

Condamner, — 

Condescendre, — 

Consister, — 

Conspirer, — 

Consumer, — 

Contribuer, — 

Convier, — 

C outer, — 

Determiner, — 
Determiner (se), — 

Disposer (se), — 

Divertir (se), — 

Employer, — 

Encourager, — 

Engager, — 

Enkardir, — 

Enseigner, — 

Entendre (s'), ■ — 

Evertuer (s'), — 

Exceller, — 

Exciter t — 

Exhorter (s'), — 

Exposer («'), — 



prepare. 

aspire. 

summon. 

subject one's self 

apply. 

expect. 

wait. 

increase. 

authorise. 

debase. 

have. 

have difficulty. 

hesitate. 

limit. 

endeavor. 

delight in. 

co-operate. 

condemn. 

condescend . 

consist. 

conspire, 

destroy. 

contribute. 

invite. 

cost. 

induce . 

resolve. 

prepare. 

amuse. 

employ. 

encourage. 

engage. 

encourage. 

teach. 

be expert. 

strive. 

excel. 

excite. 

exhort. 

expose. 



Fatiguer (se) , 

Habitner (s y ), 

Hasarder (se), 

Hesiter, 

Instruire, 

Interesser, 

Inviter, 

Mettre, 

Mettre (se), 

Montrer, 

Obstiner (s y ), 

Offrir (**), 

Pencker, 

Penser f 

Perseverer, 

Per sister, 

Plaire (se), 

Pousser, 

Prendre plai- 

Preparer, [sir, 

Porter, 

Provoquer, 

Reduire, 

Reduire (se), 

Renoncer, 

Repugner, 

Resigner (se ; , 

Rester, 

Reussir, 

Risquer, 

Servir, 

Songer, 

Suffire, 

Tarder, 

Tendre, 

Tenir, 

Travailler, 

Viser, 

Vouer, 



to weary. 

— accustom. 

— venture. 

— hesitate. 

— instruct. 

— interest. 

— invite. 

— put. 

— begin. 

— show . 

— persist. 

— offer. 

— incline. 

— think. 

— persevere. 

— persist. 

— take pleasure. 
-— urge. 

— delight. 

— prepare. 

— induce, to excite, 

— provoke. 

— reduce. 

— tend. 

— give up. 

— be repugnant. 

— be resigned. 

— tarry. 

— succeed. 

— risk. 

— serve. 

— think. 

— suffice. 

— delay. 

— tend. 

— hold. 

— work. 

— aim. 

— vow, devote. 



GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 



133 



3. 

LIST OF VERBS 

Requiring the Preposition DE before an Infinitive. 



Abstenir (s'), to 

Accuser (s'), — 

Achever, — 

Affecter, — 

Affliger ($'), — 

Agir(s' ) ,unip. , — 

Applaudir (s 1 ), — 

Apprehender, — 

Avertir, — 

Aviser (s'), — 

Avoir besoin, — 

Avoir coutume, — 

Avoir dessein, — 

Avoir envie, — 

Avoir garde, — 

Avoir honte, — 

Avoir intention, — 

Avoir le temps, — 
Avoir le courage, — 

Avoir peur, — 

Avoir raison, — 

Avoir regret, — 

Avoir soin, — 

Avoir sujet, — 

Avoir tort, — 
Bldmer, 

Bruler, — 

Censurer, — 

Cesser, — 

Chagriner (se), — 

Charger, — 

Charger (se), — 

Choisir, — 

Commander, — 

Conjurer, — 

Conseiller, — 



abstain, 
accuse one's 
finish. [self, 
affect, 
grieve. 

be the ques- 
rejoice. [tion. 
apprehend, 
warn. 

bethink one's 
want. [self, 
be accustom- 
intend. [ed. 
wish, 
take care, 
be ashamed, 
intend, 
have time, 
have courage, 
be afraid, 
be right, 
regret, 
take care, 
have reason, 
be wrong, 
blame . 

wish ardently, 
censure, 
cease. [self, 
grieve one's 
desire, intrust, 
take on one's 
choose, [self, 
command, 
beseech, 
advise. 



Contentcr (se), to 

Convenir, — 

Corriger, — 

Craindre, — 

Decourager, — 

Dedaigner, — 

Defendre, — 

Defendre (se), — 

Defter, — 

Depecher (se), — 
Desaccoutumer (se), 
Deshabituer (se), 

Desesperer, to 

Desoler (se), — 

Detourner, — 

Differer, — 

Dire, — 

Discontinuer, — 

Disconvenir, — 

Disadper (se), — 

Dispenser, — 

Dispenser (se), — 

Dissuader, — 

Douter, — 

Efforcer (s'), — 
Effrayer (s'), 

Empecher, — 

Empresser (s ' ) , — 

Enrager, — 

Entreprendre, — 
Epouvanter (s'), — 

Etonner (s'), — 

Eviter, — 

Excuser (s') 5 — 

Feindre, — 

Feliciter, — 



be satisfied, 
become, to 
correct, [suit, 
fear. 

discourage, 
disdain, 
forbid . 
decline, 
challenge, to 
hasten, [dare. 

y to leave off. 

be in despair. 

grieve. 

dissuade. 

put off. 

to say, to tell. 

discontinue. 

deny. 

apologize. 

dispense. 

forbear. 

dissuade. 

doubt. 

endeavor. 

be frightened. 

prevent. 

hasten. 

be vexed. 

undertake. 

be frightened. 

wonder. 

avoid. 

excuse one's 

feign. [self. 

congratulate. 



134 



GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 



Flatter (se), 


to flatter one's 


Presser (se), 


to hasten. 


Fremir, 


— shudder, [self. 


Presumer, 


— presume. 


Gemir, 


— lament. 


Prier, 


— desire. 


Glorifier (se), 


— pride one's 


Promettre, 


— promise. 


Hasarder (se), 


— venture, [self. 


Proposer, 


— propose. 


Hater (se), 


— hasten. 


Proposer (se), 


— intend. 


Imputer, 


— impute. 


Protester, 


— protest. 


Indigner (s'), 


— be indignant. 


Punir, 


— punish. 


Ingerer (s y ), 


— take into one's 


Rebut er (se), 


— be weary. 


Inspirer, 


— inspire, [hand. 


Recommander, 


— recommend. 


Jurer, 


— swear. 


Refuser, 


— refuse. 


Manquer, 


— fail. 


Regretter, 


— regret. 


Mediter, 


— think, intend. 


Rejouir (se), 


— rejoice. 


Meier (se), 


— meddle. 


Remercier, 


— thank. 


Menacer, 


— threaten. 


Repentir (se), 


— repent. 


Meriter, 


— deserve. 


Reprendre, 


— censure. 


Moquer (se), 


— laugh at. 


Reprimander, 


— reprimand. 


Mourir (figu.), 


— long. 


Reprocher (se), 


— reproach one's 


Negliger, 


— neglect. 


Resoudre, 


— resolve, [self. 


Nier, 


— deny. 


Ressouvenir (se), 


— remember. 


Pardonner, 


— excuse. 


Rire, 


— laugh. 


Parler y 


— speak. 


Rougir, 


— blush. 


Passer (se), 


— do without. 


Scandaliser (se), 


— take offence. 


Permettre, 


— permit. 


Seoir (unip.), 


— become, to suit. 


Persuader, 


— persuade. 


Sommer, 


— summon. 


Piquer (se), 


— take pride in. 


Soupgonner, 


— suspect. 


Plaindre, 


— pity. 


Souvenir (se), 


— remember. 


Plaindre (se), 


— complain . 


Suffire (unip.), 


— suffice. 


Prendre garde, 


— to take care, 


Suggerer, 


— suggest. 




heed. 


Supplier, 


— beseech. . 


Prendre soin, 


— take care. 


Tenter, 


— attempt. 


Prescrire, 


— prescribe. 


Trembler, 


— tremble 


Presser, 


— urge. 


Vanter (se), 


— boast. 



4. 

' LIST OF VERBS 

Connected with the Infinitive by A or by DE. 

Commencer is followed by a in the sense of a progressive action 
— by de when it marks the beginning of an action, without regard to 
its continuation : 



GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 135 

Maintenant je commence a com- Now I begin to understand. 

prendre. 
H a commence de pleuvoir. It has begun to rain. 

Continuer, to continue, is followed by a, when uninterrupted, by 
de when interrupted : 

11 continue a lire tout ce temps. He goes on all this time reading. 

Malgre sa mort je continue d'y In spite of his death I continue 
alter. going there. 

Defter a, means : to challenge; defter de : to defy, dare : 

Je Vai defle a jouer au billard I have challenged him to play 

avec moi. billiards with me . 

Je vous defle d'y alter seul. I defy you to go there alone . 

Demander a, to ask, when the action of both Verbs refers to the 
same subject ; demander de, when the action of the second Verb refers 
to an Indirect Object : 

Cet liomme demande a vousparler. This man wants to speak to you. 
Je vous demande, Sire, dem'ecouter. I ask you, Sire, to listen to me. 

Note.— It is not unusual to say : II demande d'etre regu : He asks to be admitted. 

S'empresser d, to be eager, emulous ; s'empresser de, to hasten : 

Its s'empressent a lui temoigner They are eager to show him their 

leur respect, respect. 

Je m'empresse de repondre a votre I hasten to answer your letter 

lettre 

Etre a, to be, denotes the regular turn of successive action ; etre 
de : the right or duty to do something. 

C'est a vous a jouer. It is your turn to play. 

C'est au maitre de commander. It is the master's to command. 

Forcer a does not materially differ from forcer de ; sometimes the 
former is used actively, the latter passively. 

11 m' a force a lefaire. He compelled me to do it (active). 

La cour fut forcee de rappeler The court was compelled to recall 
Conde. Conde (passive). 

Laisser, to leave, is followed by a ; ne pas laisser, not to leave 
off, by de : 



136 GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 

Je vous laisse a penser qui c'etait. I leave you to think who that was, 
IL ne laisse pas de se plaindre. He never ceases complaining. 

Manquer a, means : to fail doing one's duty ; manquer de : not to 
admit, to be deficient, to come near : 

II a manque a remplir ses devoirs. He has neglected to do his duty. 

On nepeut manquer de le penser. One cannot fail to think so. 

Elle a manque de tomber en She nearly fell as she jumped. 
sautant. 

S'occuper a, to be busy, employed ; s'occuper de : to be con- 
cerned, to meditate on : 

Je m'occupe a faire ma correspon- I am busy writing my letters. 

dance . 
II s'occupe de nos affaires. He is concerned about our business. 

Obliger a means : to oblige, compel ; obliger de : to lay under 
obligation ; etre oblige de : to be obliged : 

Cette affaire m' oblige a partir. This business compels me to leave. 

Vous m'obligerez dele faire. You will oblige me by doing it. 

11 est oblige d y y renoncer. He is compelled to give it up. 

Tdcher a means : to aim at ; tdche de : to endeavor, make efforts : 

II tdcha d m'embarrasser. He aimed at embarrassing me. 

Nous tdchons d y obtenir des re- We try to obtain results. 
sultats. 

Venir a is used in the sense of : to happen ; venir de : to point 
out the recent Past : 

SHI venait a mourir dans ce pays. If he should happen to die in this 

country. 
Nous venons de diner en hate. We have just had a hasty dinner. 

Commencer and flnir require the Preposition par before the 
Verb or Noun which expresses the action of beginning and ending : 

II a commence par me le dire — He began by telling me — 

U afinipar le croire lui-meme. He in the end believed it himself 

Nous commencons par la preface. We begin with the Preface. 

Nous flnissons par la lecture. We end with the lecture. 






GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 13? 



THE CHANGES, 

which verbs undergo from one class to another are few in number, but 
important in the effect they have on the meaning. The following are 
specially to be noted : 

1. — A few Active Verbs become Neuter, being used without an 
expressed Direct Object, which is however understood, e. g. 

La lettre tue, V esprit vivifte. The letter kills, the Spirit gives life. 

II ne sait ni lire ni ecrire. He cannot read nor write . 

2. — A few Neuter Verbs become Active, and then are conjugated 
with avoir ; this occurs : 

a. When the result of the action of the Verb is made its Direct 
Object, e. g. 

On ajoue unjeu aVenfer. They played a furious game. 

U vent toujours alter son chemin a He always wants to go his own 
lui. way. 

b. When the action refers to an object to which it extends, e. g. 

Je n'aime pas monter un cheval si I do not like to ride so wild a 

fougueux. horse. 

11 nous faudra descendre la riviere. We shall have to sail down the river. 

c. When Neuter Verbs become factitive : 

11 ne pent passer une maison sans He cannot pass a house without 

saluer. bowing. 

On va brunir ces bronzes aufeu. These bronzes will be browned in 

the fire. 

3. — Reflective Verbs become Passive, when substituted for the lost 
Passive Voice : 

Vair siffle — un cri s'entend — elle The air whistles— a cry is heard— 

tombe ! she falls ! 

Tout a coup rien ne s'y voyaitplus. Of a sudden nothing could be seen 

any longer. 



138 



GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 



4.— Reflective Verbs apparently become Neuter, by dropping the! 
second Pronoun after /aire : 

Prenez done garde — vous le ferez Why don't you take care — you will 
edbrer ! make him rear ! 

Notre canon a fait taire celui de Our Artillery silenced that of the 
I ' ennemi . enemy. 

5. — A large number of Neuter and some Active Verbs are apt to be 
used impersonally, in which case, however, they change their meaning. 
Such are : 

Arriver. 11 est arrive un accident A sad accident has happened. 
fdcheux. 

Faire, II se fait bitn des choses Many things happen in secret. 

en secret. 

Pdsser. H s'est passe des choses Extraordinary things have 
extraordinaires. taken place. 

11 se passe bien des jours Many days go by without rain. 
sans pluie. 

Alter. 11 ne me vapas de rester I do not care to remain here. 

id. 

JPlaire. Faites comme il vous Do as you like. 
plaira. 

Devoir. 11 doit y faire gai. It must be (probably is) lively 

there. 
U doit y avoir une reunion There will be a meeting of the 
des amis de friends of 

Entrer. Ilnem'entrepasdansVes- It does not enter my mind to 
pritd'y alter. go there. 

Manquer. 11 manque un volume a cet There is a volume of this work 

ouvrage. missing. 

Eocister. II n'en existe quepeu d'ex- There exist only few copies of 

emplaires. it. 

Hester. II ne me reste d'autres I have no other means left. 

ressources. 

Mesulter. Qu'en resultera-t-il? What will be the result of it? 

Suivre. Ainsi quHl suit As follows. 

Tenir. II ne tientpas a moi. It does not depend on me. 







Valoir, 



Trouver. 



Venir, 



Elever. 



DEFECTIVE VERBS. 



139 



Bvaut mieux mourir que 

d'etre esclave. 
II ne s'est trouve personne 

qui put lefaire. 
11 me vint une idee — 
Presenter. H se presenta Voccasion 

de lui en parler. 
U s'eleva une tempete et le 

navire chavira . 



It is better to die than to be a 

slave. 
Nobody came forward who 

could do it. 

A thought occurred to me 

The opportunity came to speak 

to him about it. 
There arose a storm and the 

vessel sank. 



DEFECTIVE YEEBS. 

Abbreviations.— P. Pr. Participle Present. P. P. Participle Past. Pr. 
Present Tense. P. Preterite. 

FIRST CONJUGATION. 

Bayer. To gaze, to look for. P. Pr. beant.— Rarely used. Bayer aux 

corneilles : to idle about. Un gouffre beant : a gaping abyss. 
Conster. To be certain, to appear in Court. P. Pr. constant. P. P. 

conste, Pr. il conste,— Used only in Court. 
Epier. To spy out. Pr. il epie } Us epient.— Nothing else used. 
Ester. To be . Only used in ester en jugement : to bring an action, and 

in Ester en droit. 
Importer. To be of importance. Pr. il importe. P. il importa.— 

Only used in N 'importe I No matter ! and il importe in rare cases. 
Puer. To smell badly. Pr. je pue.— Only used in Present, Future and 

Conditional. 
Besulter. To result. P. Pr. residtant. P. P. resulte. Pr. il resulte- 

P. il resulta.— Only used in Infinitive and 3rd persons, with avoir 

or etre. 
Tisser, (tistre). To weave. P. P. tissu.— Not otherwise used. 
Vermouler. To be worm-eaten. P. P. vermoulu or vermoulL Pr. il 

vermoule. P. il vermoula.— Only used in P. P. and 3rd p. S. 



HO DEFECTIVE VERBS. 



SECOND CONJUGATION. 

Avenir, (often advenir). To happen. P. Pr. avenant. P.P. avenu t 
P. il avint. — Only used in 3rd p. Quand le cas aviendra : if the 
case should happen. Advienne que pourra : Come what may ! 

Bienveniv. To be welcome. P. P. bienvenu. — Only used in : Sefaire 
bienvenir : to make one's self welcome ; and, Soyez le bienvenu I Be 
welcome ! 

JBouilliv. To boil. P. Pr. bouillant. P. P. bouilli or boui. P. je 
bouillis, il bouillit. — Only used in Infin. with faire, and 3rd p. S. 

Broui/Tm To parch, to blast. — Only used in all 3rd persons e. g., il 
brouit. 

Defaillir* To feel faint. — Only used with sentir, e. g., Je me sens 
defaillir : I feel faint. Defaillant occurs. 

Faillir. To fail, to be near to. P. Pr. faillant. P. P. failli. Pr. je 
faux (obsolete). Pr. je faillis. — Only used in : Le coeur me faut : I 
feel like fainting. U a failli mourir : He nearly died. 

Ferir. To strike. P. P. feru. — Only used in : Sans coup ferir : with- 
out striking a blow . Feru used in Veterinary Surgery. H est feru 
contre nous : He is mad against us (burlesque). 

Gesir, (unused). To lie dead. P. Pr. gisant. Pr. il git, Us gisent. — 
Only used in Ci-git (on tombstones) : Here lies. . . Tout git en 
cela : All consists in (comes to) this. 

Honnir* To dishonor. P. P. honni. Fr.jehonnis. F.jehonnis. — 
Survives only in : Honni soit qui mal y pense! (Motto of Order of 
the Garter.) 

Issir* To come forth. P. Pr. issant (in Heraldry). P. P. issu. Cousin 
issu de germain. Issue du sang des rois : Of royal blood. — From 
this is derived reussir, 

Lotir. To cast lots. P. Pr. lotissant. P. P. loti. — Only used in phrases 
like : Me voild bien loti ! Here I am in a nice predicament ! Mal 
loti : badly off. 

Outr. To hear. P. P. oui, heard. (Hence oui! yes !) Pr. fois. (?) P. 
fouis. — Now only used with dire, e. g. ,J'ai out dire : I have heard 
it said, and in Law Courts as : OyezI Oyez! 



DEFECTIVE VERBS. 141 

QuerHr. To fetch. — Only used with alter, venir, envoy er, and faire, 
e. g. H est alle querir du vin : He is gone for some wine. Qu'on 
envoie chercher le medecin I Send them for the doctor ! 

Saillir. To project. P. Pr. saillant. P. P. sailli. Pr. il saille. (?) 
P. il saillit. — Only used in 3rd p., elsewhere jaillir is used in its 
place. 

Siirgir. To come up. P. Pr. surgissant. — Only used in : Surgir au 
port : to reach the end (the desired haven). 

Vttir. To clothe. P. P. vetu. — Present and Imperative little used. 



THIRD CONJUGATION. 

Apparoir. To be apparent. Pr. il apparoit or il appert. — Used in 
the Infin. and preceded by faire, e.g. U fait apparoir de son bon 
droit : He clearly shows his good right, and in 3rd p. . Pr. e. g. 
Comme il appert par tel aeie : As it appears by such an act. 

Gh/iloir. To matter. Pr. il chant. — Pen m' en chaut : I do not care 
for it. Voltaire. 

Choir, To fall, P. P. chu. — Rarely used except in jocular language. 
However : qvJil chaille occurs, and also a rare Future : je cherrai. 

Decevoir. To deceive. P. P. decn. — Not otherwise used. 

Dechoir. To decline. P. Pr. dechoyant. P. P. dechu. Fr.je dechois. 
P. je dechus. The Fut. and Cond. have double forms : je decherrai 
smdje dechoirai. — But rarely used. 

Mechoir. To be wicked. P. Pr. mechant (Adjective). — Not used. 

Messeoir. To be unbecoming. P. Pr. messeant or messeyant. Pr.je 
messieds. — Used like seoir. 

Hechoir* To fall again. P. P. rechu. — Only used in Gompound Tenses 
with etre, and in se laisser rechoir. 

Seoir. To sit down. P. Pr. seant or seyant. P. P. sis. Pr. je sieds. 
—Only used in Participle (law terms), and 3rd ps. In poetry : Sieds- 
toi : sit down 1 

Seoir* To become, to suit. — Rarely used except in 3rd p. e. g. Cela 
vous siedfort Men : That is very becoming to you. A Fut. and a 
Cond. are occasionally found : il siera and il sierait. 



143 DEFECTIVE VERBS. 

Souloir. To be wont, to use. — Used only in 3rd p. Imperfect il sou- 
lait dire : he used to say. 

Surseoir. To suspend. P. P. sursis. — Used in Law, e. g. Onsurseoira 
aujugement : Sentence is suspended ! A Fut.,je surseoirai, and a 
Cond. , je surseoirais, are occasionally found. 

FOURTH CONJUGATION. 

Absoudre. To absolve. P. Pr. absolvant. P. P. absous, Fern, absoute. 
Fr.fabsous. — Has no Imperfect. 

Dissoudre. To dissolve. P. Pr. dissolvant. P. P. dissous, Fern. 
dissoute. Pr. je dissous. — Rarely used. 

Abstraire. To abstract. P. Pr. abstrayant. P. P. abstrait. Pr 
fabstrais, — Almost obsolete. 

Br aire. To bray. P. Pr. bray ant * Pr. il brait } Us braient. — The 3rd 
p . are coming into use again ; also the Fut. and Cond. : Cet homme 
ne chante pas, il brait : That man does not sing ; he brays ! 

Bruire. To rustle. P. Pr. bruissant or bruy ant. Yv.ilbruit. — Used 
only in 3rd p. and with f aire. Le vent bruit dans laforet : The wind 
roars in the forest. 

Clove. To close. P. Pr. closant (?).. P. P. clos. Pr. je clos (No 
Plural). — Rarely used, fermer taking its place. Used with avoir. 

Decroire. — To disbelieve. Pr. je decrois. — Only used in the Proverb . 
"Jene crois ni ne decrois. yl 

l^clore. To hatch out. P. Pr. eclosant. P. P. eclos. Pr. il eclot, Us 
eclosent. — Only used in the Infin. and the 3rd p. 

Foreelore. To foreclose. P. P. foreclos. — Only used in Law. 

Frire. To fry. P. "P. frit. Pr. je fris (No Plural) . — A Future, je fri- 
rai, and a Conditional,^ frirais, occur, but all other forms are 
made from f 'aire frire. Jefis frire une sole : I had a sole fried. 

Inclure* To inclose. P. P. inclus. — Only used in ci-inclus, enclosed. 

Luire* To shine. P. Pr. luisant. P, , P. lui. Pr.je litis. P.jeluisls. 
— Rarely used. 

Mefaire. To wrong. P. Pr. mefaisant. P. P. mefait. — Only used in 
the Infinitive and the two Participles. II ne faut ni medire ni 
mefaire : We must not speak evil nor do evil. 



IDIOMATIC VERBS. 143 

Occire. To kill. P. P. occis. — Obsolete. 

Paitre. To graze. P. Pr. paissant. P. P. pu. Pr. je pais . —Only 
used in the Infin., Fut. and Cond. Se paitre de vent : To delight in 
praise. 

JPoindre. To dawn. P. Pr. poignant (Adjective). — Rarely used. Le 
jour ne fait que poindre : Day is scarcely breaking. Une douleuv 
poignante : a poignant grief. 

JPondre. To lay eggs. Pr. il pond. P. ilpondit. — Only used in the 
Infin. and 3rd p. and always figuratively. 

Sourdre. To burst forth. P. Pr. sourdant. Pr. il sourd, Us sourdent 
— Rarely used, e. g. Veau sourd de la terre : Water oozes out of the 
ground. 11 fit sourdre des legions de la terre; He made legions 
spring out of the ground. 

Tistre. To weave. P. P. tissu. — Only used in Compound Tenses, e. g. 
Elle a tissu cctte toile : She has woven this stuff. TJn tissu a" or et 
a" argent : a stuff of gold and silver. 

Traire. To milk. P. Pr. tray ant. P. P. trait. — Old and little used, 
as also its many Compounds, e. g. abstraire, distraire, attraire &c. 



IDIOMATIC VEBBS. 

A.VOIH, used as an Independent Verb, is an Active Verb, having a 
Direct Object. 

J'avais peu mais f aural davan- I had little, but I shall have more. 
tage. 

Note 1.— The Infinitive is used as a Noun: 

H a perdu tout son avoir. He has lost all he had. 

Note 2.— Being an Active Yerb, it represents the English : to have gotten— 
got or gotten not being translated: 

Have you gotten my books? No I Avez-vous mes livres f Non, je ne 
have not gotten them yet. les aipas encore! 



144 IDIOMATIC VERBS. 

Qui a ma lettre ? Personne ne Va Who has gotten my letter? No one 
que je sache . as far as I know . 

Qu'avez-vous ? Vous avez quelque What is the matter with you ? 
chose ? Is there something the matter 

with you? 

Avoir* combined with Nouns or Adjectives, makes a number of 
Compound Verbs, expressed in English by a single Verb : 

Avoir dcffaire a* A qui a-t-il eu affaire? 

With whom has he had to do? 

— Pair de* llavaitVairdes'ennuyer* 

He looked (as if he were) tired . 

— besoin de* J'ai besoin d'une grosse somme. 

I need a big sum. 

— coutume de* Elle a coutume d'y passer Vete. 

She usually spends the summer there. 

— dessein de. Ileut dessein de se tuer. 

He intended killing himself. 

— envie de. J'avais envie d'aller avec eux. 

I felt like going with them. 

— faim* Nous avionsfaim comme des loups. 

We were as hungry as wolves. 

— honte. Elle eut honte et elle Vavoua. 

She was ashamed and confessed it. 

— V intention de* Qu> a-t-il V intention def aire? 

What does he intend doing ? 

— mal a. Elle avait mal a la tete. 

She had a headache. 

— mine* Vous avez meilleure mine qu'hier. 

You look better than you did yesterday. 

— peine de* J'avais peine dele comprendre. 

I was hardly able to understand him. 

— peur* Nous eumes peur de Voffenser. 

We were afraid we might (to) offend her. 

— pitie* Ayez done pitie de nous autres? 

Pray, take pity on us! 

— raison* Vous aviez raison comme toujour s . 

You were right — as always 



IDIOMATIC VERBS. 145 

Avoir le rhume. Avez-vous un rhume de cerveau ? 

Have you a cold in the head ? 

— soif* J y ai soif — laissez-moi boire ! 

I am thirsty— let me drink ! 

— soin de. Ufaut avoir soin de votre sante. 

You must take care of your health. 

— sujet. H croit avoir sujet de se f etcher. 

He thinks he has cause to be angry. 

— sommeil. Quand vous aurez sommeil 

When you are sleepy. . . . 

— tort. U eut tort, mais il le nia. 

He was wrong, but he denied it. 

— la touxm V enfant a eu itne tcttx terrible. 

The child has had a fearful cough. 

— beau* Vous avez beau pleitrer, Jest en vain. 

You weep in vain. It avails nothing. 

— chaud. Qu'il a chaud et comme il souffre ! 

How hct he is and how he suffers ! 

— froid. Elle afroid et elle tremble. 

She is cold and trembles. 

— quelque chose. Y a-t-il quelque chose de beau ? 

Is there anything pretty there ? 

— vingt, cent ans. II a cinquante ans, je crois. 

He is fifty, I think . 

Note.— The word vert before these Nouns or Adjectives is translated by 
bien before the Adjectives, and by grand or grand 3 before faim, soif.peur, envie 
and a few others : 

tTai grande envie de dormir. I am very sleepy. 

II avait grand' faim et grand'soif. He was very hungry and very 

thirsty. 
As-tu bien froid, mon enfant 9 Are you very cold, child? 

Note.— Such of these Compound Yerbs as are construed with de, require de 
to be supplemented in the answer, {en being the only Pronoun that can be used 
with il y a). 

Avez-vous besoin de ce livre ? Do you want this book ? 

Non,Mr. 9 je n y en aurai point besoin No, Sir, I shall not want it to-day. 
aujourd'hui. 



146 IDIOMATIC VERBS. 

Est-ce qu'elle eutpeur de mon chien? Was she afraid of my dog ? 
Oui, Mr., elle en eut peur a s'eva- Yes, Sir, she was so frightened she 
nouir. nearly fainted. 

Note.— Such as are construed with a, require y in like manner: 

Avez-vous mal a la tete ? Have you a headache ? 

Oui, M. 9 fy ai mal. Yes, Sir, it hurts me. 

Note.— Avoir Vair is followed by the Masculine form of the Adjective, when 
it refers to moral Qualities, while the Adjective which refers to physical features, 
follows the sex of the person: 

Elle a Vair fatiguee. She looks tired. 

Ai-je Vair frangais ? Do I look like a Frenchman ? 

Cette robe a Vair mal faite. This dress looks ill made. 

Elle a Vair bien contente. She looks well contented. 

Avoir , with Numerals serves to express the age of persons (never 
of things) instead of the English : to be— old. 

Quel age avez-vous ? J y ai cin- How old are you ? I am fifty years 

quante ans. old. 

M. votre pere n' a pas soixante-dix- Your father is not seventy-seven 

sept ans 9 ' years old ? 

J'aurai vingt-et-un ans le trois du I shall be twenty one on the third 

mois. of the month. 

Avoir beau dire and avoir beau /aire, mean : to say and to do 
a thing in vain, 

Vous avez beau dire : vous avez Say what you may, you are 

tort. wrong. 

Vous avez beau faire: vous ne Do what you may, you will not 

reussirez pas. succeed. 

Avoir envie de represents a number of English Verbs expressive 
of intention, e. g. 

J 9 ai envie d'aller au theatre. I have a mind to go to the theatre. 

H a toujours envie de dormir apres He always feels sleepy after 

le diner. dinner. 

J'avais bien envie de la gronder. I had a great mind to scold her. 

J'ai envie de rester a la maison ce I think I shall stay at home to- 

soir. night. 



IDIOMATIC VERBS. 147 

Y avoir. The forms of y avoir correspond to the same forms of 
there to be in English — except that in French the Singular of the Verb 
may be followed by a Plural. 

Uy a un etranger en has qui There is a foreigner downstairs, 

who. . . . 

I avait-il beaucoup de monde le Were there many people there on 

dimanche f Sunday ? 

II y aura plusieurs pretres ce soir. There will be several priests there 

to-night. 
Qu'il y ait une autre tempete : tout Let there be another storm and all 
est perdu ! is lost ! 

Note.— In poetry and orations il est is frequently substituted for il y a. 

11 est des cas ou la conscience se tait. There are cases when Conscience is 

silent. 
11 eta it une fois un roi an pays de There was once a king in Cockney- 
Coquayne, ... land 

The various forms of il y a are used to express time, correspond- 
ing to : ago, since, it is &c. : 

U y a un an quHl est mort. It is a year since he died. 

Votre ami fut ici il y a six mois. Your friend was here six months 

ago. 

Combien y a-t-il que vous etes dans How long have you been in this 

ce pays f country ? 

Mais, il n'y a que deux ans. Why, only two years ! 

Note.— The Yerb connected with the phrase il y a &c, appears in the 
Present (and not in the Perfect as in English), when the action or the state 
which it designates, continues to the Present time : 

Combien y a-t-il que vous etes (not How long have you been in this 

avez ete) ici ? country ? 

77 y a quinze jours que nous We have been here a fortnight? 

sommes ici . 

Note.— The English idiom prefers the direct construction in these cases— 
the French the indirect with iiy a: 

II y a un mois queje suis a Paris. I have been a month in Paris. 

II y a six ans que cet homme This man was killed six years ago. 

a ete tue. 

Y a-t-il longtemps que vous appre- Have you been learning French a 

nez le frangais f long time ? 



148 IDIOMATIC VERBS. 

in thjf 6 Veib il " a fe alS ° ^ t0 CX P reSS dist — in place as well as 

Combien y a-t-il d'iei en ville ? How far i« iff 

Hyauraquatre- V in g t-quinzelteues. It^^^*™' 

nin g ^^trol^^^V^fZ'Z ? ^ "*» t0 the b ^ 
tua. or distance. la the former case ™ a i^ZeTZt'Z^ ^ « 

TIME : 

Depute quand <>tes-vous id f Sincp w v ,, , % 

since when (how long) have you 

Jnsqu'd quand comptez-vous rester HowZrL ' * J. 

Zd-oas f ^ wng^do you intend staying 

Combien de temps a-t-il dormi? How lo'ng has he slept? 

PLACE : 

D'ou etes-vous venu ? tt awt , , . , 



«/e •«* id depuis samedi. iZlT T J ° U been here ? 

1 Have been here since Saturday. 

Nom-Jfc ls the only Pronoun that may ^ ^^ wi ^ ^ ^ ^ 

Combien y en a-t-il t 11 v en a une Pr^ 

douzaine. V * How ^"7 are there (of them) ? 

Ihere is a dozen (of them). 

bemgusedasaNounT * ° bject - its ****»> like J *y, 

Je sute celui qui est. T „ 

ZW adoiww Zow s r^ re Surname w n ,° iS ' 

»«n». He is at home here : he knows the 
ins and outs. 

NoT E .-The Part. Past eVnever varies. 






IDIOMATIC VERBS. 149 

Etre with a Noun requires this Noun to be repeated with the Verb 
in an answer to a question, but only in the shape of the corresponding 
Pronoun, le, la or les. 

Est-ce que vous avez ma canne f Have you my cane? 

Old, M.,je Vai. Yes, Sir, I have (it). 

Voyez-vous mes enfant s 9 Do you see my children? 

Non, M.,jene les voispas. No, Sir, I do not. 

Est-ce vous la mariee ? Are you the bride ? 

Out , M., je la suis. Yes, Sir, I am. 

Connaissez-vous ces gens 9 Do you know these people ? 

Je les connais I I do \ 

A 

Etre with an Adjective, requires this also to be repeated, but invari- 
ably by le only. 

Mesdames, etes-vous pretes 9 Are you ready, ladies ? 

Old, M. , nous le sommes. Yes, we are. 

Est-ce qiCelle estjolie 9 Is she pretty ? 

Non, M., elle ne Vest point ! No, Sir, she is not ! 

Note.— The English 'so,' used thus before or after the Verb (so I thought— 
I thought so) is also translated by le (never by si). 

JSTest-elle pas belle 9 Is she not pretty ? 

Qui, M.,je lecrois. Yes, I think so. 

Etes-vous mariee, Mme 9 Are you married, Madam ? 

Old, M.,je le suis. Yes, I am (so). 

A 

Etre in its Compound Tenses, takes the place of aller, whenever 
the return from such going is implied : 

Elle est allee a Veglise et elle y est She went to church and is still 

toujours. there. 

But : Je m'enfus ouvrir laporte. I went to open the door. 

La voild qui a ete a Veglise ! Here she is; she has been to church! 

Note.— It follows that the 1st & 2nd p. of the Preterite Definite of alter can 
never be used: 

Je suis alle a Berlin, must be : J'ai ete a Berlin. I went to Berlin. 

The Compound Tenses of aller can only be used when the going has 
not stopped, but still continues : 



150 IDIOMATIC VERBS. 

Nos amis sont tons allesau spectacle, Our friends have all gone to the 
oil Us sont encore. theatre ; they are there still. 

Mon frere est alle au Havre oil il My brother went to Havre, where 
s'est etabli. he is established. 

but the Compound Tenses of etre must be used, when the v^oing is 
completed and the return is expressed or implied : 

Void mon cousin qui a etc en Here is my cousin who went to 
Russie Kussia 

Etre is used as an Impersonal Verb : 

1.— Instead of il y a, in Poetry and Oratory : 

11 est despretres qui ne serventpas There are some priests who do not 

Dieu. serve God. 

11 riest per sonne de blesse. There is no one wounded. 

2. — To designate the hour of the day, in answer to : 

Quelle heure est-il? U est dix What time is it? It is half-past 

heures et demie. ten. 

II etait minuit quand elle s'en- It was midnight when she fell 

dormit. asleep. 

3. — In connection with temps (time) and a few Adverbs: 

11 est temps de partir. It is time to leave. 

II sera bon de savoir cela. It will be well to know that . 

4. — Preceded by ce or c' before all tenses, to introduce a Noun or a 
subordinate sentence, e . g. 

C'est Neron qui incendiait Rome. It was Nero who burnt Rome. 
Cest a Paris queje Vai vue. It is Paris where I saw her. 

Cefut au moment oufallais partir. It was at the moment when I was 

leaving. 

A 

Note.— Etre has this peculiarity when used as an Impersonal Verb ; that 
its Subject is not il as with all other Verbs of that class, but ce, and that it bas a 
Plural, e. g. 

C" est un grand tor tdetreennuyeux. It is very wrong to be tiresome . 
Ce sont les moeurs qui font la Manners make good society. 
bonne compagnie. 



IDIOMATIC VERBS. • 151 

Ce furent les frangais qui assiege- It was the French who besieged 

rent Vienne. Vienna. 

QiCeut-il fait? Cent ete lion "What could he do ? It would have 

contre lion. been lion against lion. 

NoTE.~For the Conditional g'aurait ete' modern writers prefer to use c'eiit ete 
C'eiit ete un veritable creve-coeur. It would have been a rea^ calamity. 

A 

Etre de means : to be something, or one of a certain number : 

Si fetais de vous, je ?ie le ferais If I were you (in your place), I 

pas. would not do it. 

Voulez-vous etre de moitie f Will you go halves ? 

A 

Etre a on the contrary, means : to belong, and takes the place of 
the English Possessive Case : 

A qui est ce beau palais ? II est an Whose is this fine palace ? It is the 

roi I king's ! 

Ces beaux enfants a qui sont-ils ? Whose are these pretty children ? 

A - 

Etre d may also mean : to attend to, to mind 

Vous ri*$tes pas a ce que je dis y je You do not attend to what I am 
crains. saying, I fear. 

En @tre means : to be of a certain number (like etre de ) : 

Ce Monsieur en est aussi f Out, il Is this gentleman also a member ? 

est des notres. Yes, he is one of us. 

Nous en sommes tous, corps et ante. We are all yours, with soul and 

body. 

En Stre a indicates the point or place where a pause occurred : 

Ou en e*tes-vous de voire proces 9 How far have you gotten on in 

your lawsuit ? 
Nous en etions au lexeme chapitre. We left off at Chapter X. 

X St re means literally : to be at home, and figuratively : to under- 
stand : 

Madame est-elle chez elle ? Oui, M. 9 Is you** mistress at home? Yes, 
elle y est! Sir, she is (in)! 



152 



IDIOMATIC VERBS. 



Le ministre rCy etait pas. 

Ah, fy suis, vous me Vavez si bien 

explique ! 
Pardon, M., mais vous ri'ye'tes pas. 



The minister was not at home. 
Ah, I see it all, you have made it 

so clear to me ! 
I beg your pardon, Sir, but you do 

not follow me. 



The two phrases Est-ce que and N f est-ce pas ? require special attention : 

Est-ce que is used in questions to avoid the unpleasant sound of 
Monosyllabic Verbs, like mens-je? (do I lie ?), dors-je ? (do I sleep?), &c, 
and to express surprise or doubt : 

Esi-ce que vous y allez si souvent ? Do you go there so frequently ? 
Est-ce qu'elle y va toute seule ? Does she go there quite alone? 

(Surprise.) 

2Pest-ce pas, on the other hand, takes the place of all Verbs in 
English, which are repeated after a question, either in their full form or 
represented by : to do: 



II p'eut — n" est-ce pas ? 

Mile, votre sceur sera au bal, rt est- 
ce pas I 

Vous viendrez assurement ce soir — 
n' est-ce pas? 



It rains — does it not ? 

Your sister will be at the ball — 

won't she ? 
You will surely come to-night, 

won't you ? 



Note.— The Impersonal Yerb c'est, conjugated interrogatively, retains the 
3rd p. Plural": est-ce, sont-ce, furent-ce ; but it has no Compound Tenses except 
the Conditional Past, aurait-ce e'te? which is rarely used, with its second form : 
eut-ce ete and the Plural : auraient-ce etel : 

Sont-ce des religieux qui parlent Are those monks who speak thus ? 
ainsi ? 



JPOUVOIH represents most English Verbs expressive of ability, 

though by preference of general or physical ability (I can, I am able, 1 
may, &c): 

II pouvait tout dire, il se sentait He could say everything, he felt he 

maitre. was Master. 

Jepeux vous le dire, maisje ne le I am able to tell you, but I am not 

veux. willing. 

II peut sortir vers rnidi sHl fait He may go out towards noon, if it 

beau, is fine weather. 



IDIOMATIC VERBS. 153 

Note.— Care must be taken to distinguish I could, the Past Tense, and I 
could, when it serves to make the Conditional : 

Je pouvais le faire aisement quand I could do it easily when I was 

f etais jeane. young. 

Je le ferais si vous le desiriez. I could do it, if you wished it. 

Pouviez-vous le faire en unjour f Could you do it in one day? 
Me preteriez-vous mille francs ? Could you lend me a thousand 

francs ? 

Note.— I might also is rendered by pouvoir : 

Jepourrais etreaussi riche que lui, I might be as rich as he, if . . . . 

si 

La France pourrait egaler Vltalie France might be the equal of Italy 

en metaux, si ... in metals, if ... . 

Note.— Can before an Infinitive is not translated when not the ability but 
the act itself is the important point: 

Jouez-vous du piano on de la Can you play on the piano — or on 

flute ? the flute ? 

J'y vais aisement en dix minutes. I can easily go there in ten minutes. 

Note.— The Potential Mood (I can, I may, I could, I might, &c.) does not 
exist in French, and is supplied either by pouvoir or by savoir, the former in the 
case of physical, the latter for mental ability: 

U nepeut pas soulever cepoids. He cannot lift that weight. 

Elle sait lire et ecrire. She can read and write . 

Jepourrais y ajouter sHl lefallait. I might add to it, if necessary. 

Cela sepeut, mais il est peu pro- That may be so, but it is 
bable. improbable. 

The 3rd p. of the Present Subjunctive is used to express wish &c. : 

Puisse-t-il etre un jour utile a sa May he sometime be useful to his 

patrie ! country ! 

Puissent les ennemis succomber a Would that this hero's enemies 

ce heros ! would succumb to him ! 

Nejtoiivoir plus is an expression of exhaustion : 

Elle a trop fait, elle rten pent She did too much ; she is utterly 
plus ! exhausted. 



154 IDIOMATIC VEBBS. 

Ne pouvoir mats, expressing that somebody has nothing in the 
world to do with a certain measure &c, is rapidly becoming obsolete : 

Quant a cette mechante action, il As to that wicked deed, he is inno- 
n'en pent mais. cent of it. 

Note.— Sauve qui pent is an elliptic form of a proverb, simply meaning; 
Se sauve qui lepourra : Let him escape who can ! 

Note.— Pas and point are frequently omitted with pouvoir ; 

Je ne puis dormir ; la douleur I cannot sleep, the pain keeps me 

m'empeche. (from sleeping). 

Elle neput commander a seslarmes. She could not control her tears. 

(It must not be forgotten that the Interrogative form of the 1st p. 
S. ispuis-je, never peux-je) : 

Puis-je vous etre utile, Madame ? Can I be of any use to you, Madam? 



DEVOIH, as an independent Verb, means : to owe something to 
any one, literally and figuratively, omitting the English Prepos. for, e.g. 

Est-ce quHl vous doit une grosse Does he owe you a big sum ? 

somme ? 

La loi doit une egale protection a The laws owe the same protection 

tons, to all. 

Vous me devez encore ces livres. You still owe me for these books. 

Devoir represents most English Verbs expressive of duty, obliga- 
tion &c, though mainly of moral obligations — hence the Com- 
mandments : 

Tu dois aimer ton prochain comme Thou shalt love thy neighbor like 
toi-meme I thyself ! 

Hence it will be translated : 

1. — To be, witfi the Infinitive : 

Quand est-ce que vous devez y When are you to appear there ? 

paraitre f 

Nous devons y etre precisement a We are to be there precisely at 

midi. noon. 



IDIOMATIC VERBS. 155 

2. — Ought to, with the Infinitive : 

Vous ne devez point f aire cela . You ought not to do so. 

H aurait du payer ses dettes avant He ought to have paid his debts 
de partir. before leaving. 

3. — Shall, in Interrogative Sentences : 

Que dois-je fair e f Dois-je Vaban- What shall I do ! Shall I forsake 

donner ? him? 

Nous voild egares — ou devons-nous Here we are lost ! Where shall we 

alter ? go? 

4. — Should, with the Infinitive — when in the Conditional : 

Ces enfants devraient aller a Vecole . These children should go to school. 
Vous devriez payer vos dettes You should first pay your debts. 
d'abord. 

5. — Was to be and must hare been, when in the Imperfect or 
Pluperfect : 

11 devait etre pretre, mais il etait He was to have been a priest, but 
bossu. he was hunch-backed . 

Elle devait etre enragee quand il She must have been furious when 
disait cela. he said so. 

Note.— The Subjunctive of the Preterite Definite is used interrogatively, 
with the meaning of: even if 

Dusse-je mourir, je Vaimerais Even if I were to die, I should love 

tou jours. thee still. 

Ufaut qu'ils lef assent, dussent-ils They must do it, even if they were 

en perir . to perish . 

Devoir, in the sense of to owe it to is followed by de with the 
Infinitive : 

On se doit a soi-meme d' observer We owe it to ourselves to observe 
les bienseances. what is proper. 

Note.— Poumir and devoir are the only Verbs which may separate ce from 
the Yerb etre ; 

Ce doit etre son portrait, la ressem- This must be his portrait, the like- 
blance est frappante, ness is striking. 



156 IDIOMATIC VERBS. 

Ce ne peut pas etre lux — c'est im- This cannot be he — it is impossible. 
possible. 

6. — Must, when it expresses supposition : 

Apres ce voyage vous devez etre After such a journey you must be 

fatigue. tired. 

Le bateau doit etre parti— il est The boat must have left — it is 

midi. noon. 

Note.— It is important to notice the double use of the English Yerb should ; 
it may be the mere sign of the Conditional Mood, and in this case it is translated 
by the Conditional Mood— or it may imply a duty, and then it is rendered by the 
Conditional of devoir, e. g. 

Je serais charme de vous voir, vous I should be happy to see you and 
et les votres. yours. (Cond ) 

Vous devriez aller voir son tableau. You should go and see his painting. 

(Duty.) 

Note.— The English should or ought to have is rendered by the Past 
Conditional of devoir'. 

J'aurais du partir hier, mais il I should have started yesterday, 
pleuvait. but it rained. 

Nous aurions du rentrer plus tot. We ought to have come home 

sooner . 

Vous auriez du avoir des lettres ce You ought to have had letters this 
soir. evening. 

The Indicative of devoir tells you your duty, while vous devriez only 
expresses an opinion : 

Vous devez y aller pour consoler la You ought to go there to comfort 

malade . the poor sick woman . 

Vous deviez V avoir fait avant le You ought to have done it before 

diner. dinner. 

Vous devrez le f aire pour eviter les You will have to do it, to avoid 

amendes. being fined. 

Vous devriez lefaire si vous voulez You ought to do it if you wish to 

lui plaire . please her. 



IDIOMATIC VERBS. 157 

FJLLLOIR, to be obliged, to be necessary, or I must, &c, an Im- 
personal Verb, having no Participle Present, (see p. 60) is used alone, 
with a Noun or Adjective, or followed! by another Verb, either in the 
Infinitive or by means of the Conjunction que. 

1. — FMloir, standing alone, requires the Pronoun le to be added, 
as all Active Verbs must have the Direct Object expressed, and thus, 
when the English sentence has no such Object, it is in French supple- 
mented by le } e. g. 

J'en suisfdche, mats il lefaut. I am sorry for it, but it has to be. 

Est-ee qu'il le faut absolument ? Is it absolutely necessary ? 

2. — Falloir, with a Noun for its Direct Object, means : to want, 
and the Subject is expressed as the Indirect Object, in the Dative form, 
e. g. 

Quefaut-il a cepauvre homme ? "What does that poor man need ? 

H luifaut dpeupres tout. He wants nearly everything. 

H lui fallut plus oVargent qyCil He needed more money than he 

n'avait. had. 

11 me faut un chapeau neuf et des I want a new hat and some gloves. 

gants. 

3. — F&lloir is followed by the Infinitive without an Indirect 
Object, when the necessity is general, e. g. 

II faut travailler pour vivre. We (all of us) must work in order 

to live . 
Que faut-il faire pour devenir What must (one) do to get rich ? 
riche f 

4. — Follloir, followed by the Infinitive, expresses the Subject as its 
Indirect Object, e. g. 

11 nous faudra travailler jour et We shall have to work day and 

nuit. night. 

II lui fallut s'en passer pour quel- He had to do without it for some 

ques jours. days. 

77 leur faudrait en e*tre Men con- They ought to be very well con- 

tents» tent with it. 

Me faut-il aller a la banque ce Must I go to the bank this morn- 

matin ? ing ? 



158 IDIOMATIC VERBS. 

5. — Falloir may be followed by que with the Verb in the Subjunc- 
tive Mood, which is considered the more forcible construction, e . g. 

Ufaut que vous lisiez unpen plus You ought to read a little louder. 

haut. 

Quefaut-il quejefasse pour vous What must I do to please you ? 

plaire ? 

H faudrait que cette mesure fut It would be necessary to take this 

prise de suite. . step at once. 

Note.— Falloir is one of the few Verbs which in Modern French are still 
followed by the Subjunctive of the Past, when it is itself used in a Past Tense, e.g. 

Ufallait que vous vinssiez plus tot. You ought to have come sooner. 
II a fallu que nous allassions a We had to go to London. 
Londres. 

Note.— The Impersonal Verb Ufaut occasionally takes the Beflectiveform, 
but in such cases it is accompanied by the Pronoun en, e. g. 

11 s* en faut de beaucoup qaHl sache He is far from knowing every - 

tout. thing. 

11 s'en etaitfallu de peu qu'il fut There was but little wanting and 

mort. he was a dead man. 



VOULOIH, as an Independent Verb and as an Auxiliary Verb, 
invariably expresses Volition, and therefore never renders the English 
Future, I will, which expresses Time : 

tTirai demain si je ne vais pas I will go to-morrow, if not to-day. 

aujourd'hui. 

Je veux y oiler et personne ne I will go and nobody shall, keep 

m'empeehera . me . 

11 veut et il ne veut pas, selon le He is willing and he is not willing, 

caprice. as the whim is. 

Voulez-vous lefaire ou ne le voulez- Will you do it or will you not? 

vous pas ? 

Note.— I wish followed by the Past Tense, is rendered by the Conditional 
of vouloir : 

Jc voudrais qu'il revint de suite. I wish he would return at once. 

Ne voudriez-vous pas quHl en fut Don't you wish it were so? 
ainsi ? 



IDIOMATIC VERBS. 159 

Note.— Vouloir being an Active Verb, does not require the Object- Verb 
to have after it, but is followed by the Object itself, or it has the Pronoun in its 
place: 

Voulez-vous du bceuf rdti ? Will you have some roast beef ? 

Que voulez-vous t II le voulut What will you have ? He would 

airtsi ! have it so ! 

Voulez-vous me f aire cette faveur ? Will you do me this favor ° Why, 

Mais oui, M. , je le veux. yes Sir, I will ! 

Note.— The Conditional of vouloir also represents the English : I should like, e.g. 

Je voudrais la voir jouer Ophelia . I should like to see her play Ophelia. 
Voudriez-vous lui etre presents ce Would you like to be introduced to 
soir ? her to-night ? 

The addition of bien in such cases, strengthens the meaning of 
voidoir and indicates willingness or desire, e. g. 

Je voudrais Men savoir pourquoi I wish I knew (I wonder) v?\\y she 

elle pleure. is crying . 

Voudriez-vous bien le lui expliquer? Would you be so kind as to explain 

it to him ? 

Vouloir has two forms of the Imperative : veux, quHl veide, &c. y 
and the other veuille, veuillez, &c. : 

Faites un effort ; voulez seidementl Make an effort ; only will it ! 

Veuillez me permettre que je me Pray permit me to withdraw ! 

retire I 

Dieu le veuille ! God grant it ? 

Ne vouloir de has the general meaning of : not wanting •. 

Qui sont ces gens? Je n'en veux Who are these people? I do not 

pas ! want them ! 

.Dites-lui simplement queje ne veux Tell him simply — I do not want his 

pas de ses dons. presents. 

En vouloir a quelqu'un, on the other hand, means : to hold 
someone responsible, to blame him for something : 

Cat homme se plaint — a qui en That man is complaining — whom 
veut-il f does he blame ? 



160 IDIOMATIC VERBS. 

II m'en veut de Vy avoir conduit. He blames me for having taken 

him there. 

Note.— In familiar style en vouloir a may also mean : to desire, to covet: 

Est-ce vrai qyCil en veut a cette belle Is it true that he desires that pretty 

fillef girl* 

Je ne crois pas quHl en veut a cette I do not think he really wants that 

charge. office . 

Vouloir dire is the English . to mean : 

Je ne saurais vous dire ce que cela I could not tell you what that 

veut dire , means. 

Que veut dire ce mot ? What is the meaning of that word? 



FAIHE. The Verb faire, used alone or in connection with a 
Noun, an Adjective or another Verb, is by far the most idiomatic of 
French Verbs. Only the most important meanings can, therefore, be 
mentioned here, as it may be used when standing alone, and when con- 
nected with other parts of speech. 

1. — Faire alone, expresses both : to do and to make, e. g. 

Dieu a fait le monde en six jours. God made the world in six days. 

Cet hommc fait-il de bonnes bottesf Does this man make good boots? 

Qu' avez-vous fait 9 Grand Dieu , il What have you done ? Great God ! 

est mort ! he is dead ! 

Qu 'est-ce qyCilfait la bas? What is he doing down there ? 

Note.— Faire connected with a Noun or an Adjective preceded by the 
Definite Article, means: to pretend to be, to play the part or to produce the 
impression of a certain character, e. g. 

Nefaites pas V enfant, cela ne sied Do not play the child, it does not 
pas a votre age ! suit your years ! 

Cette petite fille fait la dame a This little girl plays the lady at 
douze ans. twelve , 

U faii le difficile, mais il est bien He pretends to be fastidious, but 
faible. he is very weak . 

2. — Faire, connected with a Noun without Article, forms Com- 
pound Verbs, which generally are in English simple Verbs, e. g. 



IDIOMATIC VERBS. 



161 



Fa Ire feu, 


to fire. 


Faire faillite, 


to fail. 


— pari, 


-— inform. 


— faute, 


— be missed, 


— grace, 


— pardon. 


— voile, 


— sail. 


— tete, 


— resist. 


— halte, 


— stop. 


— cas, 


— respect. 


— ■ justice, 


— punish. 


■ — mine, 


— pretend. 


— eau, 


— leak. 


— peiir, 


— frighten. 


— serment, 


— swear. 


— mention, 


— mention. 


&c. : 


| &c. 



3. — Faire, connected with an Adjective, likewise forms Compound 
Verbs, though generally only used in the Infinitive and the Impersonal 
form — mainly expressive of all that concerns the weather, e. g. 



Fairebeau (temps), to be fine wea- Faire crotte, 



to be muddy. 



mauvais, 


— bad. [ther. 


— bon marcher, 


— good walk 


chaud, 


— warm. 


— mal, 


to hurt, [ing, 


froid, 


— cold. 


— tort, 


— wrong. 


clair, 


— clear. 


— gras, 


— feast. 


sombre, 


— cloudy. 


— maigre, 


— fast. 



Note.— Similar descriptions of the weather are made by faire, used with 
iXouns preceded by the Partitive Article, e. g. 



Faire du tonnerre, to thunder. 
— des eclairs, — lighten, 
- du vent, — be windy. 
-- dela plaie, — rain. 

Quel temps fait-il ce matin? 

II fait tres beau, peut-etre un peu 

froid. 
Ne fait-il pas du brouillard ? 
Non> mais il va faire du vent et de 

lapluie. 



Faire du soleil, to be clear (sun- 

— de V ombre, — dark. [ny). 

— dubrouillard, — foggy. 

— de la boue, — muddy. 

What kind of weather is it this 

morning ? 
It is very fine, perhaps rather cold. 

Is it not foggy ? 

No, but it is going to be windy and 
rainy. 



Note.— Faire is also used impersonally, to state the nature of things 
generally at a certain place, e. g. 



Fait-il cher vivre dans ce pays ? 
II y fait fort bon vivre, f en suis 

sur. 
Pourtant il fait mieux chez nous, 

n'est-cepas? 



Is life very dear in that country ? 
It is pleasant living there, I am 

sure. 
Still, it is better at home, is it not ? 



162 



IDIOMATIC VERBS. 



4. — Faire may be used in connection with another Yerb, in the 
Infinitive, in which case it constitutes the Causative Voice and has to 
be translated accordingly, e. g. 



11 a fait faire tous ses meubles en 

Belgique . 
Nous le ferons faire a Henri, s y il y 

consent. 



He had all his furniture made in 

Belgium . 
We will get Henry to do it, if he 

consents . 



Note.— In a large number of such cases, the French Compound Verb repre- 
sents again a simple Verb in English : 

Faire mourir, to kill. 

— monter y — call up. 

— descendre, — call down. 



aire voir, 


to show. 


— savoir, 


— inform. 


— agir, 


— employ. 


— valoir, 


— praise. 


— sauter, 


— blow up 


— naitre, 


— create. 


— renaitre, 


— revive. 



— pleuvoir, — shower. 

— venir, — send for, 



entrer, 

sortir, 

paraitre, 

parvenir } 

venir s 



— send in. 

— call out. 

— publish. 

— send. 

— send for. 



Note.— Faire before both Active or Neuter Verbs, gives an Active meaning 
to the latter, expressing an action, which the Subject (a man) ordinarily does 
not himself perform: 

Nous ne faisons jamais bouillir la We never boil meat, we roast it. 

viande, nous la faisons rotir. 
Le juge a fait pendre les deux The Judge hanged both spies. 

espions. 

Note.— When the Direct Object is a Noun, it follows the second Verb, when 
it is a Pronoun, it precedes the Verb faire: 

Fais boire ce pauvre homme ; il Give the poor fellow to drink ; he 

meurt de soif. is dying with thirst. 

Faites-la asseoir, elle est epuisee. Make her sit down, she is exhausted. 

Note.— The Verb thus connected with faire, may be 
a. An Active Verb : 

Envoyez-le chez moi, je le ferai Send him to me ; I will make him 

travailler. work ! 

Je nepeux pas arriver a le faire I cannot make him draw an hour. 

dessiner une heure. 



IDIOMATIC VERBS. 163 

b. A Neuter Verb : 

Vous le faites jouer toujour s. You set him to play always. 

Lisez cela. H vous f era rire, je suis Read this. It will make you laugh , 
stir, I am sure. 

c. A Reflective Verb, which at once ceases to be so, losing its 
Pronoun : 

On vous f era repentir oV avoir agi They will make you repent having 

ainsi. done that. 

Faites souvenir Mme. votre tante Remind your aunt to send him to 

de me Venvoyer. me. 

Note.— It must be borne in mind that when /aire precedes an Active Verb, 
the Personal Pronoun is the Indirect Object ; when preceding a Neuter Verb, it 
is the Direct Object: 

On lui fit aimer V etude du Chinois. They made him fond of the study 

of Chinese. 
Or, le jit renoncer a ses nobles They made him give up his noble 
projets. projects. 

5. — Faire, used in the Passive Voice is used impersonally, with 
this peculiar meaning : 

C'en est fait de lui, il est perdu ! It is all over with him ; he is lost ! 
Le pauvre homme ! C en est fait! The poor man ! It is over ! He has 
II vient d'expirer. just expired. 

6.— Faire, used as a Reflective Yerb (se faire) t is impersonal and 
represents the English to be or to become : 

Cette chose nepeut se faire. That cannot be done. 

Comment se fait-il que je vous How is it I find you here again ? 

retrouve id ? 

La pauvre femme se fait plus vieille The poor woman is growing older 

tous les jours. every day. 

H s'est fait pretre d'abord, soldat He first became a priest — then a 

apres, soldier. 



Note.— Se faire a means: to become used to- 



Je m'y suis fait avec de grandes I became accustomed to it very 
difficultes. slowly. 



164 IDIOMATIC VERBS. 

Juste au moment on ilcommenca a Just when he was getting used to 
s y y faire it 

Note.— Ne faire que means: to do nothing but , and Ne faire que de 

means: to have just done something, e. g. 

Elle ne fait qu' alter etvenir. She is coming and going all the 

time . 
Je nefais qu 'alter et revenir. I merely go and come back again. 

Cet homme ne fait que de boire de This man does nothing but drink 

ce vin. such wine. 

II nefait que d'arriver He has but just come in. 

Note.— N avoir que faire de and Ne savoir que faire de both mean: to have 
no use for : 

Gardez vos compliments— je rten ai Keep your compliments — I do not 

que faire. want them ! 

Benvoyez-le, je ne saurais que faire Send him back — I do not know 

de luil what to do with him. 

Note.— Nep as faire bon means: to be dangerous, unpleasant &c., e. g. 

It nefait pas bon de traverser la It is dangerous to pass through the 

foret a minuit. forest at midnight. 

It ne fait pas bon voyager en hiver. It is not pleasant to travel in winter. 



LAISSER when used alone, means : to leave a person or a thing 
in a given place : 

It laisse safemme et ses enfant s en He leaves wife and children in 

Europe. Europe. 

Son depart nous laissa dans un His departure left us in great 

grand embarras . trouble. 

Note.— It may also mean: so to leave as to forget: 
It a laisse sa bourse dans V omnibus. He left his purse in the omnibus. 

Laisser may also mean : to leave behind, to bequeathe : 

A-t-il laisse de grands biens a ses Has he left a large fortune to his 

heritiers ? heirs ? 

It laisse tout ce quHlpossede a sa He leaves all he possesses to his 

femme. wife. 



IDIOMATIC VERBS. 165 

Or it may mean : to pass over in silence, that is : to leave un- 
mentioned : 

Laissez done ces vains serupules ! Lay aside such vain scruples ! 

Laisser, followed by an Infinitive, represents the leave given by 
the speaker to do something : 

Sylla laissa enrichir ses soldats Sylla allowed his soldiers to get 

pour les gagner. rich, to win them over. 

11 Va laisse mourir deshonoree. He let her die in disgrace. 

Note,— It has very much the same meaning when connected with the In- 
finitive by a : 

Je vous laisse a penser s'il en I leave it to you, to think if he 
proflta. profited by it. 

Note.— The two forms: Ne laisser de and Ne laisser que have an affirmative 
meaning: 

11 le preehent et Us ne laissent pas They preach it and yet daily move 
de s'en ecarter. farther from it. 

11 est pauvre mats il ne laisse pas He is poor, but nevertheless an 
d'etre honnete liomme. honest man. 

Se laisser is always followed by another Verb : 

U se laisse entrainer par ses He allows himself to be carried 
passions. away by his passions. 



ALLEH & VENIR are very differently used in French and in 
English ; the principal points of difference only can be mentioned here : 

1. — Alter must invariably be followed by a Noun (with a Pre- 
position) or by another Verb (in the Infinitive): 

Nous allons en Italie pour Vhiver. We go for the winter to Italy. 
Je vais ecrire a ma sceur. I am going to write to my sister. 

Note.— Hence when the English Verb has no regimen, another word must 
be used in French, partir or s'en aller. 

Je m'en vais — adieu, ou plutot y au I am going — good-bye, or rather, 
revoir! till we meet again 1 



166 IDIOMATIC VERBS. 

II est parti et personne ne salt ou. He is gone and nobody knows 

where. 

2. — Alter and Venir are used with etre, while in English both 
may be used with to have : 

La Heine est allee an Sud de la The Queer has gone to the South 

France. of France 

Us sont tous venus vous feliciter. They have all come to congratu- 
late you* 

3. Alter, like all Verbs of Motion, admits of no Preposition 
before the Verb it governs, nor of the Conjunction and, as in English: 

Allez dire a Vavocat de venir de Go and tell the lawyer to come at 

suite ! once ! 

Venez nous voir des que vous le Come and see us as soon as you 

pourrez. can. 

4. — Alter — as has been seen before — serves to form an immediate 
Future, and venir, in like manner, a recent Past, with de : 

Nous allons vou» le faire voir sur We shall show it to you directly. 

le champ, 
lis viennent de nous faire leurs They have just bid us farewell. 

adieux* 

Us allerent nous quitter quand il They were about to leave us, when 

pleuvait. it was raining 

Elles venaient d 9 allumer la bougie. They had just lit the candle. 

5. — Alter, in French, can be used only for going to another place, 
venir for coming to where the speaker is : 

JHrai vous voir ce soir apres le I shall go and ^ee you to-night 
souper. after supper. 

Je viendrai vous voir apres une I shall come and see you in an 
heure. hour. 

6. — Alter uses the 1st & 2d p. S. in the Comnouno 1 Tenses only 
when the motion is emphasized and no return is implied 

Je suis alle a Veglisede bonne heure. I went early to Church. 



IDIOMATIC VERBS. 167 

— while the Verb etre must be substituted, when the return is 
mentioned or implied : 

J'ai ete a Veglise de bonne heure — I went early to Church — and here 

me voild ! I am ! 

Mon frere est alle a Paris ou il va My brother went to Paris, where he 

demeurer. will live. 

Mon frere a ete a Paris et le voild My brother went to Paris and here 

de retour I he is back again ! 

Je fus le voir dans sa nouvelle I went to see him in his new 

maison. house. 

Note. — Alter is occasionally used with the Participle Present, as in English, 
in higher oratorical style : 

It va s'applaudissant de son He continues to en joy his triumph. 

triomphe. 

Attila va ravageant Vltalie comme Attila goes on ravaging Italy like a 

un fleau . scourge . 

Note.— Even the Part. Present allant is at times used, though only idio- 
matically: 

C'estun homme allant, qui va se He is an active man, who will make 

faire un nom. himself a name. 

Cette maison est ouverte aux This house is open to all who come 

allants et venants. and go 

Note.— The English I was at, when meaning- I wen* to, is translated 
as the latter: 

Je ne suis jamais alle a ce theatre I never was at that theatre in my 

sans lui. life without him. 

Etes-vous jamais alle a Rome ? Were you ever in Rome? 

Note.— Aller and s'en aller differ thus: aller expresses the action of going, 
when the mannor of going or the destination is indicated, while s'en aller always 
implies the^oing away from a place: 

Je m'en vais a present ; je vais au I am. going (away) now ; I am 
bureau. going to the office . 

lis sont alles se promener — s'en They went to walk — did all of 
sont-ils alles tons ? them go (away) v 



168 IDIOMATIC VERBS AND THEIR MEANINGS. 

Aller frequently takes the place of English to be, when referring 
to the state of health of persons or the state of things, e. g. 

Comment va la malade ? Elle va How is the patient ? She is better. 

mieux. 

(Ja ira. Cela nepeut aller. That will do. That won't do. 

U n'en va pas de meme ici. Things are not thus here. 

Aller may, in like manner, be used for the English Verb : to 
become, to fit, e. g. 

Ce chapeau va mal a cette dame. That bonnet is not becoming i^ 

that lady. 
Cet habit vous va fort bien. That coat fits you well. 



ALPHABETICAL LIST OF MOST IMPORTANT 

IDIOMATIC VEEBS AND THEIE MEANINGS. 



A. 

Aceroire. S'en faire accroire. To be self conceited, too pre- 

sumptuous. 
On nepeut luienfaire accroire. He cannot be put upon. 

Allev et s'en aller are alike used with the Infinitive, but the latter 
refers to time or place only. 

Je vais mourir. I go to my death . 

Je m'en vais mourir. I go (from here) or (from this 

moment) to my death. 

Apparoir only used in the Infinitive with, f aire, in legal terms. 

11 fait apparoir de son bon He clearly shows his good right. 

droit. 
Comme it appert par un tel As it appears by such an act. 

acte. 

Appeler. J' en appelle a votre I appeal to your honor. 
honneur. 
Cet homme comment s y appelle- What is that man's name? 
t-U? 



IDIOMATIC VERBS AND THEIR MEANINGS. 169 

Asseovt. Asseoir les fondements To lav the foundation of a house 

d'ane maison sur un roc. on a rock. 

Cesar assit son camp dans la Caesar formed his camp in the 

valUe. valley. 

Attentive. Je m' attends bien quHl I trust he will do it. 

le fera . 

Ne vous attendez pas que je Do not expect me this evening ! 

vienne ce soir I 

Le Messie est attendu par les The Messiah is waited for by the 

Hebreux. Hebrews. 

Avancer. Avaucez cette table vers Bring that table near to me. 
moi. 

Je me suis avance de lui offrir I went so far as to offer him all. 
tout. 

Avenir* Advienne que pourra. Come what will. 
(Old Motto). 

E se peut qu'il avienne. That may happen. 

B. 

IZattre. Cet homme nous a battu That man has deafened us by 
les oreilles. talking. 

Battre le fer pendant qu'il est To strike the iron while it is hot. 
chaud. 

Bayer. Bayer aux corneilles. To stand gaping in the air (looking 

blank) . 

JSercer. H se berce des plus bril- He flatters himself with the most 
lantes chimeres. brilliant fancies. 

Boire. Lui il bolt a la bouteille, He drinks out of a bottle, she out 
elle boit dans un verre. of a glass. 

Qui bon Vachele bon le boit. The dearest goods are the cheapest. 

11 n'y a pas de Veau a boire. That is an excessively poor business. 



Ceder. Cette poutre ne tardera That beam will give *vay ere long. 
pas a ceder. 

Il faut toujours ceder le pas We must always give the prece- 

aux dames. dence to ladies. 



170 IDIOMATIC VERBS AND THEIR MEANINGS, 

Ce negotiant a cede sonfonds 



Je lui cede en tout. 



This merchant has sold out his 

business. 
I am his inferior in evexything. 



Celer. C'est un homme qui ne He is a man who can keep nothing 



peut Hen celer. 
11 m y afallu me fair e celer. 



to himself. 
I had to beg to be excused (to 
visitors). 



Charger. 11 est charge d'affaires He has important business on his 

importantes. hands. 

lis char gent trop la memoire They overload children's memory. 

des enfants . 

Les caracteres de cet auteur The characters of this writer are 

sont trop charges. overdrawn. 

Un navire charge pour An outward-bound ship. 

Vetr anger. 

On le vit trois fois charger They saw him attack the enemy 

Vennemi. three times, 

Choyer. SHI ne se choie il re- If he does not take care of himself, 

iombera. he will relapse. 

Clore. Je n'ai pu clore Vceil de I have not been able to close an 

toutelanuit, eye all night long . 

AlleZ'VOus clore lejardindmie Will you enclose your garden with 

haie ? a hedge ? 

Commencpr, N a pas fait qui a Beginning is not ending. 
commence ! 



11 commenga oVebranler la 

monarchic 
11 commence a f aire jour. 

Commettre. II a ete commis pour 

rapporteur. 
Je vais commettre cela a votre 

soin. 
Ne vous commettezpas avec cet 

homme. 



He was the first to make the 

Monarchy tremble. 
It begins to dawn. 

He has been appointed reporter. 

I am going to leave that in your 

charge. 
Do not commit yourself with that 

man. 



Compromettre* Nayezpaspeur 
je ne vous compromettraipas 



Be not afraid, I shall not commit 
you. 

Us Vont compromis entre les They have entrusted it to the 
mains dujuge. judge. 



IDIOMATIC VERBS AND THEIR MEANINGS. 1ft 

Ti craint trop de se compro- He is too much afraid to commit 
mettre. himself. 

Conftre. 11 est tout confit en He is made up of malice. 

malice. 

Cotinaitre. On va me f aire con- They will speak to the President 

naitre an president . about me. 

Chdtiez-le, je ne connais que Punish him, I know no other 

cda. way. 

Cejuge nepeut pas connaitre This judge cannot take cognizance 

de cela. of that. 

II est connu pour n'etre pas He is known not to be pious. 

devot. 

Elle se connait en diamants. She is a judge of diamonds. 

Coucher. Nous allons coucher a We shall sleep in the open air. 

la belle etoile. 

II comptait le coucher sur le He expected to knock him down. 

carreau. 

Cettepluie a couche le ble. This rain has laid the wheat. 

D. 

Dechoir. Sa reputation com- His reputation begins to decline. 
mence a dechoir. 

I^es mauvais anges sont dechus. The wicked angels are fallen angels. 

Napoleon a ete dechu de Fern- Napoleon was deposed from the 

pirepar Empire by ... 

Decoudre. Uennemi savance; The enemy advances, we shall have 
nous aurons a en decoudre. to fight. 

II est un peu trop decousu dans He is rather free and easy in his 
son style. style. 

Deconvrir. La mer se decouvre In the distance the sea may be 
dans le lointain. seen . 

H m'a decouvert tout son He has revealed to me his whole 

secret. secret. 

On doit etre decouvert dans un We ought to stand bareheaded i n 
lieu saint. a holy place. 

Dedire. Je nevousendediraipas. I shall not contradict you. 

Vous serez oblige de vous dedire You will have to retract all that. 
de tout cela. 



172 



IDIOMATIC VERBS AND THEIR MEANINGS. 



Defer er. On lui defera le consulat 
avant Vdge qu'ilfaut. 
Nous deferons tous a son 
jugement. 

Defter. Autrefois on deftait I'en- 
nemipar un heraut. 
Vous ferez bien de vous defter 
de cet homme. 

Degager. II ne manquera pas de 
degager sa foi. 
J'aime a y degager mon esprit 
de toute preoccupation. 

Devoir. Fais ce que tu dois, 
advienne que pourra. 
II croit toujour s qu'on lui en 

doit. 
Qui doit a tort. 

Differ er. Le metier desjuges est 
de differer la Justice. 
Leurs mceurs different beau- 
coup. 
Ce qui est differe n'est pas 
perdu. 

Dire. Ce ne sont que des on dit. 
Que veut dire tout ce fracas ? 
Laissez dire les sots, le savoir 

a son prix. 
H n'y trouve rien d dire. 
Le pretre va dire la messe. 
Cela va sans dire. Soit dit en 

passant. . . . 
Qui ne dit mot consent. 
Donner. Ici on donne a manger 

et a boire. 
Cela donne a penser. 
Donner un ozuf pour avoir un 

bceuf. 
Je vous le donne en cent. 



They deferred the consulate on him 

before the proper age. 
All of us submit to his decision. 

In olden times they challenged the 

enemy by a herald. 
You will do well not to trust that 

man. 

He will not fail to redeem his 
pledge (keep his promise). 

I like there to free my mind of all 
preoccupation. 

Do what is right, come what may. 

He always thinks more is due 

to him . 
The debtor is always in the wrong. 

The work of the judge is to delay 

Justice. 
Their manners are very different. 

Postponed is not given up. 

They are nothing but rumors. 
What does all this tumult mean ? 
Let fools talk, knowledge is power. 

He has no objection. to this. 
The priest will say Mass. 
Of course. By the way 

Silence gives consent. 

Food and drink may be had her<r . 

That sets me to thinking. 

To throw out a sprat to catch a 

whale. 
You may guess at it a hundred 

times 



IDIOMATIC VERBS AND THEIR MEANINGS. 



to 



Mes croisees donnent sur le 

jar din. 
Qui donne tot donne deuxfois. 
11 ne sait vraiment ou donner 

de la tete m 

Dorniir. II rCy a pire eau que 
Veau qui dort. 
Cet homme dort sur V affaire. 
Cet homme ne dort point. 



My windows look out upon the 

garden. 
(Bis dat qui cito dat.) 
He really does not know which 

way to turn. 

Still waters run deep . 

That man is too slow in business. 
That man is wide-awake. 



E. 
'Entendre. Cela s y entend. 

Veuillez entendre mes raisons. 
Faites comme vous Ventendez. 
II entend tres bien raillerie. 
J'entends que vous m'obeissiez, 

messieurs ! 
II s y entend mieux aux affaires 

que son pere . 

Entretenir. II entretenait un 
grand train. 
II vient m f entretenir de ses 

affaires, 
lis s'entretiennent de bagatelles. 

Tlntvevoir. J'entrevois des mal- 
heurs. 
lis s y entrevoient chez elle. 



That is understood — a matter of 

course. 
Please listen to my arguments. 
Do as you think best. 
He takes a jest very kindly. 
Gentlemen ! I mean to be obeyed 

(by you) ! 
He is more at home in business 

than his father. 

He kept up a great style. 

He comes to talk with me about 

his business . 
They talk of trifles. 

I foresee misfortune. 
They meet at her house. 



F. 

Faillir. Arriver a jour fa illant. 
La branche des Valois a failli 

dans Henri III. 
Elle a failli tomber. 



To come at the close of day. 

The branch of the Valois became 

extinct in Henry III. 
She came near falling. 



I. 

Tnduire. Qui est ce qui vous a 
induit a cela? 



Who has induced you to do that ? 



174 



IDIOMATIC VERBS AND THEIR MEANINGS. 



On Va bientot induit en erreur. 
Qu'est-ce qu'on en a induit a la 
cour f 

Ingerer, s\ II aime a sHngerer a 
tout. 
II sHngere de tout. 

Inquieter. Cette nouvelle mHn- 

quietefort. 
Que cela ne vous inquiete pas I 
lis inquietaient les assiegeants 

par des sorties. 
Est-ce qu'on V inquiete dans la 

possession de ses biens 9 

Instmiire. J'en instruirai M. 
votrepere. 
Lisez-le et vous en serez mieux 

instruit. 
Ceux qui aiment a s'instruire, 
ne sont jamais oisifs. 

Interdire* Vous interdisez Vusage 
du tabac 9 
On a interdit cette eglise. 
Une affaire imprevue m'inter- 

dit ce plaisir. 
II etait tout interdit. 



He has soon been led into error. 
What have they inferred from it 
at Court ? 

He likes to meddle with every- 
thing. 
He is an officious coxcomb. 

This news makes me very uneasy. 

Do not let that trouble you ! 

They harassed the besiegers by 
sallies. 

Do they disturb him in the posses- 
sion of his property. 

I shall apprize your father of it. 

Eead it and you will be better 
informed. 

Those who love to improve them- 
selves are never idle. 

Do you prohibit the use of to- 
bacco ? 

That church has been shut up. 

An unexpected affair deprives me 
of this pleasure. 

He was quite amazed. 



J. 

Jeter. Jeter la langue aux ehiens. To give it up. 

II jeta quelques propositions He let fall some offers of peace, . . . 
depaix. ... 

II nous a tous jetes dans He has put us all to incon- 

Vembarras. venience. 

H se jeta sur V omelette avec He fell voraciously upon the ome- 

avidite. lette. 

Elle se jeta au cou de son She threw herself on her husband's 

mari. neck. 



IDIOMATIC VERBS AND THEIR MEANINGS. 175 

L. 

Lancer. . Est-ce qiion a lance ce Have they launched that vessel ? 
navire ? 

U n'a fait que lancer des He cast sheep's eyes all the time. 
ceillades. 

Lech er. II fax. dra lecher Fours. We shall have to spin out that affair. 

On le lui donnera a leehe They will give it to him in small 
doigts. quantities . 

Lever, se 9 Elle se leve de bonne She gets up early. 

heure. 

La cour s'est levee ce matin. The Court adjourned this morning. 

Le vent se leve, il y aura un The wind is rising, we shall have a 

orage. storm. 

M. 

Maintenir. Cettefemmese main- That woman looks well for her 
tient bien pour son age. age. 

Leur objet est de se maintenir. Their object is to preserve them- 
selves. 

Cette barre defer maintient la This iron bar upholds the frame. 

charpente. 

Je vous maintiens que cela est I assure you, this is so. 
vrai. 

Malmener. II Va bien malmene. He has scolded him badly. 

Lennemi a bien malmene leur The enemy has inflicted heavy 
avant-garde. damages on their vanguard. 

Mendger. Qui veut aller loin, He who wants to go far, spares his 
menage sa monture. horse. 

Je lui ai menage une place. I helped him to a situation. 

Manger. II mange a Vhotel. He takes his meals at the hotel. 

La riviere a mange tous ses The river has eaten away its 

bords. banks. 

Les valets et sa maitresse le His servants and his mistress are 

mangent. ruining him. 

Z/'e feminin se mange devant The e of the feminine always elides 

une voyelle. before a vowel. 

II mange ses mots meme en He pronounces badly even in his 

prechant. sermons. 



176 



IDIOMATIC VERBS AND THEIR MEANINGS. 



Mettre. Qui a mis ces paroles 

en musique f 
Ou me mettrai-je ? Mettez-vous 

ici ! 
11 a mis de Veau dans son vin. 
Quand est-ce quHl va mettre son 

livre aujour f 
Pourquoi voulez-vous la mettre 

en jeu ? 
II a mis le doigt dessus. 
Elle va mettre le convert. 
Jevais vons mettre a meme de 

le faire. 
II a mis dufoin dans sesbottes. 
Elle se met mieux que sa sceur. 
II ne vaut pas la peine de vous 

mettre en colere . 
Ecrivez-moi et me mettez an 

courant de 

Maintenantje vais m'y mettre . 
It s'est mis cela a la tete. 
lis se sont mis mal ensemble. 
Des qiCelle la voit, elle se met a 

pleurer. 
Mettezvous a Vouvrage ! 

Monter. Ufaut monter a cheval 

ou en voiture. 
II va monter en grade bien vite. 
Les frais montent a un million. 
II sait monter une horloge ou 

une machine. 

Mourir. 11 se laisse mourir de 

faim. 
Tl va mourir de sa belle mort. 
Voyez done ; il se meurt ! 
II estmort tout en vie. 
Vous pleurez tant ; vous me 

faites mourir. 
Le boulet vint mourir a ses 

pieds. 



Who has put these words to 

music ? 
Where shall I sit ? Sit here ! 

He has lowered his tone. 
When will he publish his book ? 

Why will you bring her name in 

question ? 
He has hit the nail on the head. 
She will set the table. 
I will put you in the way of 

doing it. 
He has feathered his nest. 
She dresses better than her sister. 
It is not worth while getting 

angry. 
Write to me and tell me all 

about 

Now I am going to set about it. 
He has taken that into his head. 
They have fallen out. 
As soon as she sees her, she begins 

to cry. 
Sit down and go to work ! 

We must go on horseback or in a 

carriage. 
He will be quickly promoted. 
The cost comes to a million. 
He can wind up a clock or set up 

a machine. 

He suffers himself to perish for 

want. 
He is going to die a natural death. 
Just see ! He is dying ! 
He was taken off very suddenly. 
You weep so much ; you wear me 

out. 
The ball came and stopped at his 

feet. 



IDIOMATIC VERBS AND THEIR MEANINGS. 177 

Elle va mouter son train en She will increase her expense in 

ville. town. 

Cela va lui monter la tele. This will excite him greatly. 

Qui monte la mule la ferre. Who rides the mule pays the 

hostler. 

U monte souvent sur ses He often takes things very grandly. 

grands chevaux. 

La rongeur lui monta au visage. Her face turned red (with blushes. ) 

N. 

Naitre* U Empire romain ne fai- The Roman Empire was but in its 
sait que naitre. infancy. 

Nos plus grands plaisirs en Our greatest pleasures spring from 

naissent. them. 

Ces maladies naissent d'in- These maladies are the result of 
temperance, intemperance . 

Nettoyer. Les voleurs ont nettoye The robbers have carried off every- 
la maison % thing. 

II se mit a nettoyer les chemins He began to clear the highways of 
de voleurs. robbers. 

Nicher. Les hirondelles nichent The swallows build their nests in 
dans les cheminees. chimneys. 

On la vertu va-t-elle se nicher ? Where will Virtue hide herself ? 

Est-ce qyCon va nicher ce saint ? Is that Saint to have a shrine ? 

O. 

Obliger. La Justice nous oblige a Justice compels us to do so. 
le faire. 

Les tyrans les obligeaient de se The tyrants forced them to hide 

cacher. themselves. 

Noblesse oblige. Noble descent is binding. 

Quel malheur d'etre oblige a What a misfortune to be under 
un tel homme! obligations to such a man . 

Ouvrir. Veuillez ouvrir une Please open one or two windows. 

fenetre ou deux. 

Les marchands n'ouvrent point Merchants do not open on holi- 

les jours de fete. days. 

Vingtfoisfai voulu ouvrir le Twenty times I wanted to speak of 

discours. that subject. 

Laporte a ma voix s'est ouverte. At my command the door opened . 



178 



IDIOMATIC VERBS AND THEIR MEANINGS. 



P, 

Paitre. Les vaches et les moutons 

paissent Vherbe. 
Un bon pasteur a soin de 

paitre ses ouailles 

Elle voulait paitre encore ses 

yeux du tresor 

II aime a se paitre de vent. 

Parler. Notre Seigneur a fait 
parler les muets. 
Le nombre des instruments 

quHl fait parler . . . . 
Cetavocatparlepourun autre. 
Je vous parte de cela en Vair. 

On parte trop legerement du 
prochain. 

L'un parle en ecolier, Vautre 
en maitre. 

II nefaut point mal parler des 
absents. 

Cha que passion parle un diffe- 
rent langage. 

Pdrtager. Partagez cette somme 
entre vous. 
La Nature Va bien partage. 
11 partageait son bien avec les 

pauvres. 
Je partage Vavis du maitre. 

H faut partager le differend. 
Cette querelle partagea la ville. 

Pctrtir. Vous n'etiez guere parti 
quHl arriva. 

Passer* Je n*aifait que passer. 
11 est a I agonie — it va passer. 
Faites-moi le plaisir de passer 
chez moi demain. 



Cattle and sheep feed on grass. 

A good shepherd takes care to feed 

his flock 

She still wanted to feast her eyes 

on the treasure 

He dearly loves praise. 

The Lord made the dumb speak. 

The number of instruments which 
he plays 

This lawyer pleads for another. 

I tell you this without knowing 
anything about it. 

We speak too thoughtlessly of our 
neighbors. 

One speaks knowingly, the other 
without knowing. 

We must never speak evil of the 
absent. 

Every passion has its own lan- 
guage. 

Divide this sum among you. 

Nature has endowed him well. 
He shared his wealth with the 

poor. 
I am of the same opinion as the 

teacher. 
We must split the difference. 
This quarrel divided the, town. 

You had hardly gone when he 
came. 

I only went by . 

He is in agony — he is going to die. 
Do me the favor and call to- 
morrow. 



IDIOMATIC VERBS AND THEIR MEANINGS. 



179 



Passez-moi le pain sHl vous 

plait ! 
Elle passe tout son temps a 

lire des romans. 
II faudra en passer par Id, 

falpeur. 
H s J est fait passer pour un 

milord anglais. 
Je pourrais lui passer cela, 

mais il a vole I 
Cela me passe, je ne sais qu'en 

dire. 
11 sefaut passer de bien des 

ehoses a la campagne. 
Passez cet endroit, ne le 

lisez pas ! 
Ij€s couleurs vives se passent 

facilement. 

Payer. Je lui ai paye tout ce que 

je lui devais. 
Ne pensez pas que je me paye 

d'une simple negative. 
Lepauvre homme a paye son 

tribut a la nature. 
H entreprit de payer d?audace. 
Vous nous payez d' excuses 

colorees. 

Porter. II porte de beaux habits 
et les cheveux longs. 
Ces arbres portent-ils du fruit 9 
Le bienfait porte interet. 
Elle disait beaucoup a bout 

portant. 
Le coup a porte juste. 

Elle se porte facilement a des 

extremites. 
Comment seporte madamevotre 

mere ? 



Hand me the bread, if you please. 

She wastes all her time reading 

novels. 
You will have to submit, I fear. 

He gave himself out to be an 
English lord. 

I could overlook that, but he is a 
thief ! 

That is beyond me — I do not know 
what to say. 

In the country we have to do with- 
out many things. 

Omit this place — do not read it ! 

Bright colours fade easily. 



I have paid him all I owed him. 

Do not fancy I will be content with 

a simple denial. 
The poor man has paid Nature's 

Debt. 
He attempted to face it out. . . . 
You put us off with specious 

excuses. 

He wears fine clothes and his hair 
long. 

Do these trees bear fruit ? 

A kind act bears interest. 

She said many unpleasant things 
in his hearing. 

The blow went home. 

She easily goes to extremes. 

How is your mother ? 



180 IDIOMATIC VERBS AND THEIR MEANINGS. 

Prendre. On a pris la ville The town has been taken by 

d'assaid. storm. 

Voulez-vons prendre un mor- Will you eat a piece of bread? 

ceau de pain f 

11 dit que les autres ont pris les He says the others have gotten the 

devants. start of us. 

II faudra prendre notre parti. We shall have to make up our mind. 

Prendre fait et cause pour To undertake some one's defence. 

quelqiCun. 

It a ete pris sur le fait. He was caught in the act. 

11 a bien pris ce qiCon lui a dit He took the message you sent him, 

de votre part. quite well. 

Prenons le cas queje nai rien Let us suppose that I said nothing. 

dit. 

Quand est-ce quHl va prendre When is he going to say good-bye? 

conge f 

SHI y adu mal, prenez-vous-en If anything is amiss, you must 

a vous-nieme. blame yourself. 

A tout prendre il est bon On the whole he is a good fellow. 

gargon. 

On ne sait jamais par on le One never knows how to take 

prendre. him. 

II s'y prend comme s'il s'y He goes about it as if he were at 

connaissait. home in it. 

Quand est-ce que le feu a pris a When was it the house caught 

la maison ? fire ? 

Prenez garde qu'on ne vous Take care not to be cheated ! 

trompe ! 

Son habit s % est pris a un clou. His coat has caught on a nail. 

J'aipeurquHl n'etait pris de I fear he was slightly intoxicated 

vin. with wine. 

Prevenir* Cette nouvelle a pre- This news came before the Mail. 

venu le courrier. 

II vous perdra si vous ne le He will ruin you if you do not 

prevenez. anticipate him. 

11 faut tdeher de prevenir la We must try to keep, off the fever. 

fievre. 

H m'a fait prevenir de son He sent me word that he was 

arrivee. coming. 

C'est Vhomme du monde quise There is no man in the world less 

previent le rnoins. prejudiced than he is . 



IDIOMATIC VERBS AND THEIR MEANINGS. 181 

Je vous previens oVune chose, I warn you of one thing, and that 

c'est que is 

Cejeune homme a une physio- That young man has a pleasing 

nomie prevenante. countenance. 

Cet homme est prevenu de vol. That man is accused of theft. 

Promener. U les a promenes He has led them all over town. 

dans toutela ville. 

Le juge promena sa vue sur la The judge looked around on the 

foule. „ crowd. 

11 promene en tout lieu son He carries his restlessness where- 

inquietude. ever he goes. 

Voulez-vous vous promener a Will you take a ride on horseback 

cheval ou en voiture ? or in a carriage ? 

11 y a quinze jours quHl me It is a fortnight now that he trifles 

promene pour cette affaire. with me. 

C'est un sot; qu'il aille se He is a fool; we must get rid of 

promener! him. 

R. 

Hanger. Une armee rangee en An army drawn up in battle-array. 

bataille. 

Les gardes firent ranger le The guards kept back the people. 

peuple. 

On se rangea pour la laisser They made room for her to pass. 

passer. 

Cetait un libertin, mats il s J est He was a libertine, but he has 

range. reformed. 

U se sont tous ranges de son They have all come over to his 

parti. party. 

Dites a la bonne de ranger la Tell the maid to right the cham- 

chambre. ber. 

On range cet ecrivain parmi This writer is counted among the 

les classiques. classics. 

Heconnaitre. J'ai reconnu ma I recognized my sister by hei 

soeur par sa voix. voice. 

C y est alors qu'on a reconnu sa At that time his treachery was 

trahison . discovered . 

It reconnait quHl a eu tort. He admits having been wrong. 

H se reconnait dans sonflls. He sees himself in his son. 



182 



IDIOMATIC VERBS AND THEIR MEANINGS. 



II tomba et quand il vint a se 

reconnaitre 

II se reconnut et demanda 

pardon au ciel. 
On les envoya reconnaitre le 

terrain. 
II ne reconnaissait ni juge ni 

superieur, 
C est un fait reconrm par tous 

les histoi Ions* 

Remettre. On Va remis dans tous 

ses droits. 
Est-ce qyCon a pu remettre son 

bras f 
H ne faut jamais remettre au 

lendemain ce qui 

Je m'en remets a vous et a 

mes amis. 
Elle s'est remise, n" est-ce pas ? 
Remettez ce livre a sa place I 
11 a remis les sceaux entre les 

mains du roi. 
Je ltd ai remis le tiers de sa 

dette. 
Je ne saurais me remettre 

votre nom. 

Rendre. Rendre visite est souvent 

rendre service. 
11 sait rendre une pensee en 

dix langues. 
A quifaut-il en rendre comptef 
Ce chemin rend a la ville. 
11 desire toujours rendre la 

pareille. 
II va se rendre a son poste, au- 

pres du marechal . 
Rendez a Cesar ce qui est a 

Cesar. 
L y argent rend des interels, une 

terre rend des revenue. 



He fell and when lie came to him- 
self.... 

He repented and asked Heaven to 
forgive him. 

They were sent to explore the 
ground. 

He acknowledged neither judge 
nor superior. 

This is a fact admitted by all his- 
torians. 

He has been reinstated in all his 

rights. 
Have they been able to set his 

(broken) arm ? 
We must never postpone till the 

next day what 

I rely on you and my friends. 

She is well again, is she not ? 
Put that book again in its place ! 
He has returned the Great Seal 

into the king's hands. 
I have let him off one third of his 

debt. 
I cannot remember your name. 

To pay a visit is often to do a 

service. 
He can express a thought in ten 

languages. 
To whom are we responsible for it ? 
This road leads to town. 
He always tries to pay back in the 

same coin. 
He will return to his post, near the 

general. 
Render unto Caesar the things 

that are Caesar's. 
Money produces interest, lanu a 

revenue. 



IDIOMATIC VERBS AND THEIR MEANINGS. 183 

C'est dans ce moment qu'elle At that very instant she expired. 

rendit Vdme. 

La garde meurt et ne se rend The Guards die, but never sur- 

pas. render. 

11 ne pent plus marcher : il se He can walk no longer ; he gives 

rend. it up. 

Mepondre. II a repondu a ma let- He has answered my letter and all 
tre et a toutes mes questions. my questions. 

C'est vous qui me repondrez I shall hold you reponsible for 
de cela ! that ! 

Reprendre. H faut reprendre We must return to our winter- 

nos habits d'hiver. clothes. 

Tres-bien f reprit-il. Very well, he replied. 

On ne m'y reprendra plus,je I promise you, I shall not be 

vous le promets. caught at it again. 

H faut reprendre un enfant Children must be gently reproved. 

avec douceur 

H trouve a reprendre dans les He finds fault with the best 

meilleurs ouvrages . works. 

Voila que le froid reprend. Here now the cold returns to us. 

Elle commence a reprendre ses She begins to recover her spirits. 

esprits. 

II dit un mot et se reprend He says a word and at once cor- 

aussitot. rects himself. 

Hevenir. Les plaisirs passent et Pleasures pass never to return. 

ne reviennent plus. 

Elle n } est pas encore revenue She has not yet recovered from 

de sa maladie. her sickness. 

U ne reviendra jamais de ses He will never shake off his 

prejuges. prejudices. 

J' en reviens sur ce quefavais I recall what I had said. . . . 

dit 

Quand on m 'a fait de ces tours, I never forgive such tricks. 

je n'en reviens pas. 

Votre personne, votre parler, Your person, your way of speaking, 

tout lui revient. all is to his liking. 

Ce qui revient au meme Which is the same tiling . . . 

Cet habit revient a cinquante This coat costs me fifty dollars. 

dollars. 



184 



IDIOMATIC VERBS AND THEIR MEANINGS. 



Le vinfait revenir le coeur. 
11 me revient de toutes parts 
que vous aimez. . . . 



Wine cheers the heart. 
I hear from all sides that you are 
in love. . . . 



Savoir. Tout se salt. 

IlrCy a pas de nouvelles queje 

sache. 
II salt son pain manger. 
Je ne saurais qu'yfaire. 
11 y en avait six, savoir : trois 

de blancs. . . . 
Je ne sache rien de plus pre* 

cieux que la vertu. 
Elle sait bien son monde. 
Je lui ferai savoir ce qui est 

arrive. 

Sentlr. Ce vin sent lefut. 

Est-il vrai quHl ne sent pas les 

affronts ? 
Je le sentis venir de loin. 
II ne se sentait pas dejoie. 
Ce pays se sent encore de la 

guerre. 
Je sens que je passe les homes. 

Cette action sent le gibet. 



Everything is known. 

There is no news that I know of. 

He knows what he is about. 

I cannot help that. 

There were six, namely: three 

white ones. . . . 
I know nothing more precious 

than virtue. 
She knows people. 
I'll let him know what happened. 

This wine tastes of the cask. 

Is it true that he does not resent 

insults ? 
I perceived what he was at. 
He was beside himself with joy. 
This country has not recovered yet 

from the war. 
I perceive I am going beyond the 

lines. 
That is a crime leading to the 

gallows. 



Tenir. Nous Vavons tenu sur le 

tapis une heure. 
Qu'est-ce qui le tient ? 
11 tenait un peu de son pere et 

elle de sa mere. 
Lui avez-vous fait tenir la 

lettre f 

U ne tiendrapasd moique 

Je ni'en hens a voire avis. 



We talked of him a whole hour. 

What is the matter with him ? 
He resembled his father and she 

her mother. 
Did you send him the letter ? 

It will not be my fault if . . . 
I rely on your advice. 



IDIOMATIC VERBS AND THEIR MEANINGS. 



185 



Elles se tiennent tonjours pro- 

pres. 
Uune tient boutique, Vautre 

tient pension. 
Un principe qui tient dans 

tous les cas. 
Qu'd cela ne tienne I 
C'est a n'ypas tenir. 
Tiens, comme vous y allez ! 
Tenez,j y aime encore mieux cela. 
Vous pouvez vous en tenir la. 
It nepeut tenir sa langue. 
De qui tenez-vouscette nouvellef 
Laforet tient aujardin. 
It nepeut se tenir deparler. 



They always keep very clean. 

One keeps a shop, the other a 

boarding-house. 
A principle that holds good in 

every case. 
Never mind that ! 
I cannot endure this any longer ! 
Look, how you go about it ! 
Look here. I like this better after all. 
You can stop there ! 
He cannot hold his tongue. 
Who has told you this news ? 
The forest adjoins the garden. 
He cannot keep from speaking. 



Valoir. Cela ne vaut Hen. 

Vous ne faites rien qui vaille. 

H fait bien valoir ce qxCil 

sait. 
Cet essai lui a valu une bonne 

position. 

Autant vaut y aller tout de 

suite. 
Prenez sapromesse vaille que 

vaille . 

Cela vaut fait. 

Les effets valent mieux que 
les paroles. 

Lejeu ne vaut paslachandelle. 



That is no good. 

What you are doing is good for 
nothing. 

He makes good use of his know- 
ledge. 

That essay has procured for him a 
good place . 

It is just as well to go there at once. 

Accept his promise at all events. 

It is as good as done. 

Facts are worth more than words. 

The thing is not worth paying for. 



It nay be well here to add a few English Verbs, which are apt to 
be misused in French from apparent identity with French Verbs or 
other reasons, e. g. 

To abuse is not abuser, which means to take advantage of, but 
when equivalent to : insult, is injurier, accdbler d y injures, dire des 
sottises, &c: 



II accabla d'injures la pauvre 
femmepour rien. 



He abused the poor woman for 
.nothing. 



186 IDIOMATIC VERBS AND THEIR MEANINGS. 

To address by writing is adresser, but by word of mouth : adresser 
la parole a, e. g. 

Adressez-lui la parole avec la plus Address him with great reverence. 

grande reverence. 

Adressez-ledorenavant a St . Peters- Address him in Petersburg here- 

bourg. after. 

To bring", in the sense of to le°d, is amener, but in the sense of 
carrying a book or like object, it is apporter, e. g. 

Amenez-nons voire ami ce soir ! Bring your friend to night ! 

Apportez-moi les lettres quHl y Bring me the letters that are 
aura au bureau. at the office. 

In like manner emmener is used of living, self-acting beings, 
emporter of lifeless objects, e.g. 

Pourquoi voidez-vous emmener Why will you take your wife with 

Madame f you? 

Comme vous allez d la jyoste, em- As you are going to the post-office^ 

portez ma lettre. take my letter. 

The same difference of meaning applies to mener and porter, both 
of which mean : to bring. 

Est-ce que vous mener ez les enfant s Will you take the children to the 

au spectacle ? theatre ? 

Portez ces lettres a la poste de Take these letters instantly to the 

suite. office ! 

To charge, when referring to the price for anything is not charger, 
but demander or prendre, e.g. 

Combien prenez-vous par lecon? How much do you charge for a 

lesson ? 
J'ai pevr que vous ne demandiez I fear you charge too much for 
troppour mes ressources. my means. 

To sleep when meaning : to pass the night, is rendered not by 
dbrmir but by couclier, but by dormir, when sleep itself is meant. 

Ou allez-vous couclier quand ma- Where will you sleep when your 
dame vous quitte ? wife leaves you ? 

J'espere que vous avez bien dormi I hope you slept well last night? 
toute la nuiU 



IDIOMATIC VERBS AND THEIR MEANINGS. 187 

To expect is attendre only when it means : to wait for, but compter 
when it means to intend, e. g. 

J' attends ma sceur demain ou I expect my sister to-morrow or 

lundi. Monday. 

Je compte alter a la campagne I expect to go into the country 

demain . to - morrow. 

To spare is epargner only when it can be used instead of : to save 
money ; otherwise it is avoir besoin or se passer, e. g. 

Pouvez-vous vous passer de votre Can you spare your paper for a few 

journal pour quelques mo- moments? 

ments ? 

J'aibesoin devous aujourd'hui, M.l I cannot spare you to-day, Sir ! 

To marry, when the act of the clergyman, is marier, when applied 
to the man or the woman we marry, it is epouser, and to get married is 
se marier , e. g. 

C y estlefreredemafemmequinous It was my wife's brothei who 

a maries. married us . 

Je crois quHl a epouse une alle- I think he has married a German 

mande. lady. 

Elle a epouse un homme tres riche. She has married a very rich man. 

Je me marierai quandje serai riche. I shall marry when I am rich. 

To practise, when it means habitually to do or to bring about, is 
pratiquer, but when it applies to an instrument and the like, it is s'exer- 
cer or etudier, e.g. 

Le sage pratique toujour 's la vertu. The wise man always practises 

virtue. 

H n'y a pas moyen de pratiquer There is no way of making an 

une ouverture. opening. 

Allez vous mettre au piano. Go and practise on the piano ! 

Pour etre maitre aux echecs ilfaut To be a master at Chess, you must 

s'exercer beaucoup. practise much. 

To be too tight or to hurt is never literally translated, but means : 
g$ner, e. g. 

Ou est-ce que votre habit vous gene? Where does your coat feel tight ? 

Vune de mes bottes me gene, V autre One boot hurts me, the other docs 

est bien. well. 

Poussez cette table, elle nous gene. Push this table, it is in our way. 



188 



VERBAL NOUNS. 



To dress is usually habiller, when applied to others, but S9 mcttre 
when *We speak of ladies' dresses : 



U habille son garcon en marin. 
Elle a habille sa poapec en Jeanne 

d'Arc. 
Cette dame se met merveilleuse- 

■ment bien. 

Femme comme il faut est femme 
bien eoiffee, bien gantee, bien 
chaussee. 



He dresses his boy as a sailor. 
She dressed her doll like Jeanne 

d'Arc. 
This lady dresses marvellously 

well. 

The fashionable lady dresses her 
hair well and wears superior 
gloves for her hands, and ex- 
cellent shoes. 



VEEBAL NOUNS. 

Various parts of the French Verbs are used as Nouns, some un- 
changed, others with very slight changes. The principal sources from 
which such Verbal Nouns are drawn, are : 

I. The Simple Root of the Verb, the Infinitive termination being 
cut off, and the Nouns being Masculine : 



Accorder : I 'accord, the agreement. 
Accueillir : Vaccueil, the reception. 
Appeler : Vappel, the appeal. 
Decorer : le decor, the decoration. 
Degeler : le degel, the thaw. 



Decliner : le declin, the decline. 
Departir : le depart, the departure, 
Destiner : le destin, the destiny . 
Pardonner : le pardon, the pardon. 
Par f timer: leparfum, the perfume 



II. The Simple Infinitive of the Verb, unchanged : 



Le dejeuner, 


breakfast. 


Le devoir, 


duty. 


Le diner, 


dinner. 


Le savoir, 


knowledge. 


Le souper, 


supper. 


L'avenir, 


future. 


Le loger. 


lodgings. 


Le repentir, 


repentance. 



Some of these Nouns are used in the Plural 

Les vivres, victuals . 

Les etres, the parts of a house. 

Les pouvoirs, power (of attorney). 



Le voler des oiseaux frugivores. 
Au doux coucher dujour. . . . 



The flight of f rugivorous birds. 
At the sweet close of day. . . . 



VERBAL NOUNS, 



189 



III. The Participle Present, the Nouns designating generally life- 
less objects or abstract thoughts : 

Lever: le levant, the East. L y orient, the East. 

Coucher : le couchant, theWest, L y Occident, the West. 

Pencher : le penchant, the inclination. L'aimant, the magnet. 

Sembler : le semblant, the appearance. Le sergeant, the se -geant. 

Monter : le montant, the amount. Le president, the pr\ >sident. 

Note.— A few of these Nouns are used in the Feminine form : 

La gouvernante, the governess. La servante, the maid-servant. 

La(lig7ie)secante, the secant (geom.) La (lettre) patente, Letters Patent. 
V assemblee constituante, the Constituent Assembly. 

1Y # The Participle Past, which makes generally feminine Nouns : 
Of strong Verbs : 



La vente, 
La course, 
La pointe, 
La defense, 



the sale, 
the course, 
the point, 
the defence. 



La reponse, the reply. 

La retraite, the retreat. 

La conduite, the conduct. 

La restrainte, the restraint. 



And of weak Verbs 



L 'avenue, 

Uentrevue, 

L'allee, 



the avenue, 
the interview, 
the avenue. 



La vue, 
La revue, 
Uassemblee, 



the sight, 
the review, 
the assembly. 



Though a few of these Nouns are Masculine, e. g. 
Le revenu, the income. L'apergu, 



Uarrete, 
Le tissu, 



the sentence, 
the tissue. 



Le neglige, 
Le clos, 



the sketch, 
the undress, 
the enclosure. 



Note.— A few of these Verbal Nouns in — t are Masculine: 
L'avocat, the advocate. Le credit, the credit. 



L' adjoint, 
Le decret, 
L'objet, 



the adjunct, 
the decree, 
the object. 



L'ecrit, 
Le convert, 



the writing, 
the envelope. 



A COMPLETE LIST 



OF THE 



Principal Verbs and their Meaning 



IN THE 



FEENCH LANGUAGE. 



Note. — The first number following the Verb, indicates the Conj ligation 
to which it belongs — the other numbers point out the pages on 
which the Verb itself, or the class to which it belongs, are given. 







A. 




Accrocher, 1 




41 


To hook on. 


Abaisser, 1 
abandonner, 1 


±1, 


131 
41 


To lower. 
— abandon. 


accroire, 4 
accroitre, 4 


36, 


69 
52 


— accredit. 

— increase. 


abattre, 4 




61 


— cast down. 


accroupir (s'), 


2 


57 


— crouch 

down. 


abimer, 1 




41 


— ruin. 


accueillir, 2 




45 


— receive. 


abonner, 1 




41 


— subscribe. 


accuser, 1 


41, 


126 


— accuse. 


ab order, 1 


36, 


41 


— board. 


acharner is'), 1 


57 


, 131 


— be eager. 


aboutir, 2 


48, 


131 


— end in. 


acheminer (s'), 


1 


57 


— start on a 


abre'ger, 1 




41 


— shorten. 








journey. 


abriter, 1 




41 


— shelter. 


acheter, 1 




41 


— buy. 


abrutir (s')» 2 




57 


— stupify. 


achever, 1 




41 


— finish. 


absoudre, 4 


68, 


117 


— absolve. 


acque'rir, 2 82, 


117, 


127 


— acquire. 


abstenir (s')» 2 


48. 


127 


— abstain. 


acauitler, l 




41 


— acquit one's 


abstraire, 4 




69 


— abstract. 


additio7iner, 1 




41 


— add. [self. 


abuser, 1 




41 


— abuse. 


adjoindre, 4 




69 


— associate. 


accabler, 1 




41 


— overwhelm. 


admirer, 1 




41 


— admire. 


accepter, 1 




41 


— accept. 


adonner (s'), 1 




57 


— devote. 


accompagner, 1 




41 


— accompany. 


adoucir, 2 




44 


— soften. 


accomplir, 2 




44 


— accomplish. 


admettre, 4 


69, 


131 


— admit. 


accorder. 1 


41, 


131 


— grant. 


admirer, l 




41 


— admire. 


accorder (s')« 1 




57 


— agree. 


adresser, 1 




41 


— address. 


accoucher, 1 




36 


— be confined. 


adresser (s'), 1 




57 


— turn to. 


accouder (s')» 1 




57 


— lean on el- 


affaiblir, 2 




44 


— weaken. 


accourir, 2 36, 


45 


130 


— run up. [bow. 


affermir, 2 




44 


— strengthen. 


accow^??ier(s'),l 41 


131 


— get used to. 


affliger, 1 




64 


— afflict. 






PRINCIPAL VERBS OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 191 



Affranchir, 2 



44 



agenouiller (s'), 1 57 

agir, 2 44 

agit{ils'),2 44 

agrafer, 1 41 

agrandir, 2 44 

agr6er t 1 65 

agriffei* (s'), 1 57 

aheurter(s'),l 57 

aider, 1 101, 131 

aigrir, 2 44 

aimer, 1 41, 131 

aimer mieux, 1 41, 131 

ajouter, 1 41 

aliener, 1 65 

altfguer, 1 56 
afe\ 1 82, 117, 131 

aZZer (s'en), 1 61 

allumer, 1 41 

altfrer, 1 41 
amour acher (s'), 1 57 

amener, 1 65 

amonceler, 1 64 

amuser, 1 41 

analyser, 1 41 

ane'antir, 2 44 

annoncer, 1 64 

annuller, 1 64 

apercevoir, 3 67 

aperceuoir(s'),3 67, 131 

aplanir, 2 44 

apparaitre, 4 36, 68 

appartenir, 2 66 

appeler, 1 64 

appendre, 4 51 

applaudir, 2 44 
appre'cier, 1 41, 125, 131 

apprendre, 4 51 

appreter, 1 41, 131 

apprivoiser, 1 41 

approcher, 1 41 

approfondir, 2 44 

appr oarer, 1 41 

appuyer, 1 65 

arguer, 1 65 

arr acher, 1 41 

arreter, 1 41 

arriver, 1 41 

arroger is'), 1 59,127 



To frank, pre- 


Arroser, 1 




41 


To water. 


pay. 


aspire?*, 1 


41, 


131 


— aspire. 


— kneel down. 


assailhr, 2 


44, 


117 


— attack. 


— act. 


assentir, 2 




44 


— assent. 


The question is. 


associei* (sV, 1 




57 


— associate. 


To fasten. 


asseoir (s'), 1 


57, 


117 


— sit down. 


— increase. 


assortir, 2 




45 


— assort. 


— agree. 


assoupir (s'), 2 




57 


— doze. 


— clutch . 


assurei\ 1 


41, 


131 


— assure. 


— insist upon. 


astreindre, 4 




69 


— compel. 


— aid. 


attacker, 1 




41 


— attach. 


— embitter. 


attaclier(s'), 1 


41, 


131 


— apply. 


— love. 


attaquer, 1 




66 


— attack. 


— prefer. 


atteindre, 4 




55 


— overtake, 


— add. 








reach. 


— alienate. 


attendre, 4 


69, 


131 


— wait. 


— allege. 


attendrir, 2 




44 


— move (men- 


— go. 








tally). 


— go away. 


attirer, 1 




41 


— attract. 


— kindle, light. 


attiser, 1 




41 


— stir(the fire). 


— alter,change 


atiraper, 1 




41 


— catch. 


— fall in love. 


attrister, 1 




41 


— sadden. 


— bring. 


augmenter, 1 


41, 


131 


— increase. 


— heap up. 


autoriser, 1 


41, 


131 


— authorize. 


— amuse. 


avaler, l 




41 


— swallow. 


— analyse. 


avancei~, 1 




64 


— advance. 


— annihilate. 


avenir, 2 




48 


— happen. 


— announce. 


avertir, 2 




44 


— inform, 


— annul. 








warn- 


— perceive. 


atnfo'r (s'), 1 


41 


131 


— debase. 


— become 


aviser, 1 




41 


— give notice. 


— level, [aware. 


avoir, 3 25 


,82 


131 


— have. 


— appear. 


avoi?* (i/), 3 




59 


— be there. 


— belong. 


avouei\ 1 


65 


131 


— confess. 


- call. 










— attach, re- 










store. 






B. 




— applaud. 










— appreciate. 


Baigner, 1 




41 


To bathe. 


— learn. 


bailler, 1 




64 


— gape. 


— make ready. 


baisser, 1 




41 


— lower. 


— tame. 


balancer, 1 


41 


131 


— hesitate. 


— approach. 


balayei\ 1 




65 


— sweep. 


— fathom. 


bannir, 2 




44 


— banish. 


— approve. 


baptiser, 1 




41 


— baptise. 


— support. 


fra^'r, 2 




44 


-build. 


— argue. 


battre, 4 


69 


117 


— beat. 


— tear away. 


Zmttre (se), 4 




69 


- fight. 


— stop. 


bavarder, 1 




41 


— chatter. 


— arrive. 


bechei*, 1 




41 


— dig. 


— assume. 


fr^ttir, 2 




66 


— bless. 



192 PRINCIPAL VERBS OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 



Bercer, 1 
bl&mer, 1 
blanchir, 2 
blasphemer, 1 
blottir (se), 2 
boire, 4 
boutonner, 1 
borner (se), 1 
braire, 4 
briller, 1 
bruiner, 1 
bruler, 1 



Gabrer (se), 1 
cacher, 1 
cacheter, 1 
calomnier, 1 
carrer (se) t l 
casser, 1 
causer, 1 
ceindre, 4 
c4der, 1 
cttebrer, 1 
cesser, 1 
chanceler, 1 
changer, 1 
chanter, 1 
charger, 1 
charger (se), 1 
charmer, 1 
chasser, 1 
chatouiller, 1 
chauffer, 1 
chausser, 1 
chercher, 1 
cherir, 2 
choir, 3 
choisir, 2 
circonscrire, 4 
circonvenir, 2 
cZore, 4 
coiffer, 1 
colleter, 1 
combattre, 4 
commander, 1 
commettre, 4 
commencer, 1 
comparaUre, 4 
complaire, 4 



64 To rock. 

41,126 —blame. 

44 — wash. 

41 — blaspheme. 

57 — hide. 

69, 117 — drink. 

41 — button. 

41, 131 — limit. 

69 — bray. 

41 — shine. 

41 — drizzle. 

41 — burn. 



57 To rear (horse). 

41 — hide. 

64 — seal. 

65 — slander. 

57 —form square. 

41 — break. 

41 — talk. 

68 — gird. 

64 — yield. 

41 — celebrate. 

31, 41 —cease. 

64 — hesitate. 

36, 64 —change. 

41 — sing. 

64. 126 — charge. 
126 — undertake. 

41 — charm . 

41 — hunt. 

41 — tickle. 

41.127 —heat. 

41 — make shoes. 

41, 131 — seek, to look 

44 — cherish, [for. 

68 —fall. 

44 — choose. 

69 —circumscribe 

66 — impose up- 
69 — close. [on. 
41 — dress the 

64 — collar, [hair. 

69 — combat. 

41 — command. 

69 — commit. 

64.130 —begin. 
68 -r- appear. 

69. 131 — please. 



Completer, 1 
complimenter, 1 
comporter(se), 1 

comprendre, 4 
compromettre, 4 
compter, 1 
concevoir, 3 
conclure, 4 
concourir, 2 
condamner, 1 
condescendreA 
conduire, 4 
confesser, 1 
confire, 4 
confondre, 4 
congedier* 1 
congeler, 1 
conjoindre, 4 
conjuguer, 1 
connaitre, 4 
conquerir, 2 
conseiller, 1 
consentir, 2 
consister, 1 
construire, 4 
conspirer, 1 
consulter, 1 
consumer, 1 

contenir, 2 
contenter, 1 
continuer, 1 
contraindre, 4 
contredire, 4 
contrefaire, 4 

contrevenir, 2 
contribuer, 1 
convaincre, 4 
convener, 2 
convex ser, 1 
convertir, 2 
conmer, 1 
copier, 1 
coqueter, 1 
correspondre, 4t 
corriger, 1 
corrompre, 4 
coucher, 1 
coucherise), 1 



64 To complete. 
41 — compliment 
57 — conduct 

one's self. 

69 — comprehend 

68 — compromise 
41, 131 — count 
40, c 7 - conceive. 

65.117 —conclude. 
66, 140 — compete. 

41. 131 — condemn. 
51,134 —condescend. 
54, 118 —conduct. 

41. 132 — confess. 

69. 118 — preserve. 
51 — confound. 

65 — dismiss. 

64 — freeze. 

69 — wed, conjoin 

66 — bind. 
52, 118 — know. 
66, 82 —conquer. 

41 — counsel. 

45 — consent. 

41, 131 — consist. 

54 — construct. 

41, 131 — conspire • 

41 — consult. 

41, 131 — consume, 

destroy. 

60 — contain. 

41 — satisfy. 

65 — continue. 
51 — compel. 

69, 118 — contradict. 

68 — mimic, imi- 
tate. 

66 —transgress. 

41. 131 — contribute. 

69 — convince. 
36, 66 — agree. 

41 — converse. 

44 — convert. 

41. 132 — invite. 
65 — copy. 
64 —coquet. 
69 — correspond. 
64 — correct. 
68 — corrupt. 
41 —lie down. 
41 — go to bed. 



PRINCIPAL VERBS OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 193 



Goudre, 4 


69 


118 


To sew. 


I De'faire, 4 


68 


To undo. 


couper, 1 




41 


— cut. 


defaire (se), 4 


57 


— get rid. 


courir,2 66, 82 


118 


,131 


— run. 


defendre, 4 


69 


— defend. 


courtiser, l 




41 


— pay court. 


dejier, l 


65 


— defy. 


co titer, 1 


101 


,132 


— cost. 


dejier (se), l 


57, 127 


— mistrust. 


couvrir, 2 




46 


— cover. 


dejinir, 2 


44 


— define. 


cracker, 1 




41 


— spit. 


de'geler, l 


64 


— thaw. 


craindre, 4 




69 


— fear. 


degenerer, 1 


36 


— degenerate. 


crayonner, 1 




41 


— draw. 


de'grafei\ 1 


41 


— unhook. 


c?^er, 1 




65 


— create. 


dfioindre, 4 


69 


— disjoin. 


crier, 1 




65 


— cry. 


deher, 2 


65 


— untie. 


voire, 4 69, 


118, 


131 


— believe. 


demander, 1 


41, 125 


— demand. 


croilre, 4 


36 


52 


— grow. 


de'menager, 1 


64 


— move, 


crotter, 1 




41 


— cover with 


demener {se), 1 


57 


— conduct. 


cueillir, 2 


82 


118 


— gather, [dirt. 


dfrnentir, 2 


44 


— belie. 


cuire, 4 




69 


-boil. 


dimettre, 4 


68, 127 


— lay down. 


cultiver, 1 




41 


— cultivate. 


demeurer, 1 
de'molir, 2 


36, 41 
64 


— dwell. 

— demolish. 






D. 




de'mordre, 4 


60 


— let go. 










departir. 2 


45 


— depart. 


Banser, 1 




41 


To dance. 


depecer, 1 


64 


— cut to pieces. 


daigner, 1 


41, 


131 


— deign. 


depechei\ 1 


41 


— hasten. 


da^er, 1 




41 


— date. 


depeindre, 4 


69 


— depict. 


tifbarquer, 1 




41 


— land. 


dependre, 4 


69 


— depend. 


debarrasser (se), 1 


57 


— get rid. 


depensei\ 1 


41 


— spend, 


de'battre, 4 




68 


— debate. 


diplaire, 4 


68 


— displease. 


de'battre (se), 4 




57 


— struggle. 


depouiller, 1 


64 


— strip, despoil 


deboucher, l 




41 


— clear, open. 


derangei\ 1 


64 


— trouble. 


de'cacheter, 1 




64 


— open(letter). 


derider, 1 


41 


— cheer up. 


didder, 1 




64 


— die. 


des alter ei\ 1 


63 


— quench 


de'celer, 1 




64 


— reveal. 






(thirst). 


de'cevoir, 3 




49 


— deceive. 


de'sapprendre, 4 


51 


— unlearn. 


dechiffrer. 1 




41 


— decipher. 


descendre, 4 


36, 69 


— descend. 


de'chirer, 1 




41 


— tear. 


desenivrei\ 1 


41 


— sober. 


dichoir, 3 


36, 


68 


- fall. 


desennuyer, 1 


65 


— amuse. 


decider, 1 




41 


— decide. 


deshabiller, 1 


41 


— undress. 


declarer, 1 


41, 


131 


— declare. 


de'shabituer (se) 


1 57 


— break one's 


de'colleter, 1 




64 


— lay bare. 






self. 


dicorer, 1 




41 


— decorate. 


dishonorer, 1 


41 


— dishonor. 


decoudre, 4 




69 


— undo. 


descendre, 4 


69 


— descend. 


de'coupei\ 1 




41 


— cut out. 


de'sirer, 1 


41, 131 


— desire. 


de'couvrir, 2 




46 


— discover. 


de'sister. l 


41 


— desist. 


dfcrire, 4 




41 


— describe. 


de'sobtvr, 2 


44 


— disobey. 


de'crocher, 1 




69 


— take down. 


desservir, 2 


45 


— clear (table). 


de'crotter, l 




41 


— clean (of 


dessinei*, 1 


41 


— design. 








mud). 


detacher, 1 


41 


— detach. 


cZedire (sej, 4 


69, 


118 


— unsay, re- 


deteindre, 4 


69 


— take outcol- 








tract. 


de'tenare, 4 


68 


— stretch, [or. 


dedommager, l 




64 


— compensate. 


d&tenir, 2 


48 


— detain. 


deduire, 4 




69 


— deduct. 


determiner, 1 


41, 132 


— resolve. 


de'faillir, 2 




45 


— fail (die). 


detournei% 1 


41 


— turn aside. 



194 PRINCIPAL VERBS OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 



D&romper, 1 




41 


To undeceive. 


Egarer, 1 


41 


To lead astray. 


detruire, 4 




54 


— destroy. 


e'garer (s'), 1 


57 


— lose way. 


de'velopper, 1 




41 


— develop. 


egayei\ 1 


65 


— cheer. 


devenir, 2 




48 


— become. 


egratigner, 1 


41 


— scratch. 


de'vetir, 2 




44 


— undress. 


e'largir, 2 


44 


— enlarge. 


divider, 1 




44 


— wind- 


e'lire, 4 


83 


— elect. 


devoirs 67,82,88,125,131 


— be bound. 


embarquer, 1 


41 


— embark. 


de'vouer, 1 




41 


— devote. 


embarrasses*, 1 


41 


— embarrass. 


dieter ', 1 




41 


— dictate. 


embellir, 2 36, 


44 


— beautify. 


different 1 




41 


— differ- 


embeter, 1 


41 


— worry. 


dige'rer, 1 




64 


— digest. 


einbraser, 1 


41 


— set on fire. 


diner, 1 




41 


— dine • 


embrasser, 1 


41 


— embrace. 


dire, 4 


69, 


118 


— say. 


embusquer (s') 1 


57 


— hide one's 


disconvenir, 2 




48 


— deny. 


emettre, 4 


68 


— emit. [self. 


discourir, 2 




66 


— discourse. 


emmener, 1 


64 


— carry off. 


dlsjoindre, 4 




69 


— disjoin. 


emoudre, 4 


69 


— grind. 


disparaitre, 4 


36, 


68 


— disappear. 


emouvoir,S 


67 


— touch. 


disposer, 1 


41, 


132 


— prepare. 


emparer (s'), 1 57, 


127 


— take hold. 


dissoudre, 4 




69 


— dissolve. 


empecher, l 


41 


— prevent. 


distinguer, 1 




65 


— distinguish. 


empirer, 1 


36 


— grow worse. 


distraire, 4 




69 


— distract. 


emplir, 2 


69 


-fill. 


divertir, 2 


44, 


132 


— divert- 


employe)-, 1 65, 


132 


— employ. 


domier, 1 39 


, 45, 


125 


— give. 


empoisonner, l 


41 


— poison. 


dormir, 2 




45 


— sleep. 


emporter, 1 


41 


— take off. 


doubler, 1 




41 


— double. 


emporter (s*), 1 


57 


— get angry. 


douter, 1 


41, 


127 


— doubt. 


empresser is'), 1 


57 


— hasten. 


durer, 1 




41 


— last. 


emprunter, 1 41, 
enceindre, 4 
enclore, 4 


125 
69 
69 


— borrow. 

— encircle. 

— enclose. 






E. 




encovrager, 1 41, 
encourir, 2 


132 

66 


— encourage. 

— be liable to. 


Ebahiris'), 2 




57 


To be amazed. 


endormir (s'), 2 


57 


— fall asleep. 


e'battre (s'), 4 




57 


— make merry 


endosser, 1 


41 


— endorse. 


e'blouir, 2 




44 


— dazzle. 


enduire, 4 


44 


— lay on a coat 


ibouler (s'), 1 




57 


-fall in. 


endures*, 1 


41 


— harden, [of. 


ebouillir, 2 




44 


— boil away. 


enfermer, l 


41 


— enclose. 


e'ehapper, 1 


36 


41 


— escape. 


enfreindre, 4 


69 


— transgress. 


e'ehoir, 3 




68 


— become due. 


enfuir (s'), 2 


57 


— flee. 


echouer, 1 


36, 


65 


- fail. 


engager, 1 41 


132 


— engage. 


eclairer, 1 




41 


— light. 


engraisser, 1 


41 


— fatten. 


eclaircir, 2 




44 


— enlighten. 


enhardir (s') t 2 57, 


132 


— venture. 


eclore, 4 




69 


— open, blow. 


enivrei", 1 


41 


— get drunk. 


e'eonduire, 4 




54 


— refuse. 


enjoindre. 4 


67 


— enjoin. 


Gcouter, 1 


41, 


131 


— listen. 


enjoler, 1 


41 


— wheedle. 


e'erxre, 4 


69 


118 


— write . 


enlaidir, 1 


41 


— make ugly. 


ecr outer (s'), 1 




57 


— fall down. 


enlever, 1 64, 


125 


— take away. 


hauler, 1 




41 


— elapse. 


ennoblir, 2 


44 


— ennoble. 


effacer, 1 




64 


— efface. 


ennuyer, 1 


65 


— annoy, tire. 


effrayer, 1 




65 


— frighten. 


enqueter (s'), 1 


57 


— inform one's 


igaler, l 




41 


. — equal. 


enque'riris'), 2 


57 


— inquire.[seif. 



PRINCIPAL VERBS OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 195 



Enrlmmer [s') t 


1 


57 


To catch cold. 


Exclure, 4 




65 


To exclude. 


enrichir, 2 




44 


— enrich. 


exciter, 1 


41, 


132 


— excite. 


enseigner, l 41,125,132 


— teach. 


extasier (»'), 1 




65 


—be in ecstasy 


ensevelir, 2 




44 


— bury. 


excuser, 1 




41 


— excuse. 


ensuivre (s'), 4 




57 


— follow logic- 


exigei\ 1 




65 


— demand. 








ally. 


expirer, 1 


36, 


41 


— expire. 


entendre, 4 69, 


131, 


132 


— hear. 


expliquer, 1 




41 


— explain. 


entreluire, 4 




69 


— shine alittle 


exposer, 1 


41, 


132 


— expose. 


entremetire (s'), 


4 


57 


— £0 between. 


exiraire, 4 




69 


— extract. 


entreprendre, 4 




69 


— undertake. 










entrei\ 1 


36, 


41 


— enter. 






F. 




entretenir, 2 




48 


— entertain. 










entrevoir, 3 




68 


— see partly. 


Fdcher, 1 




41 


To incense. 


envahir, 2 




44 


— invade. 


fdcher (se), 1 




56 


— get angry. 


envelopper, 1 




41 


— envelop. 


fa Mir, 2 




44 


- fail. 


envie)\ 1 




65 


— envy. 


faireA 68,118, 


125, 


131 


— do, make. 


environner, 1 




41 


— surround. 


falloir, 3 60, 


118. 


131 


— be obliged. 


envisager, 1 




64 


— look upon. 


fatiguer, 1 


65, 


132 


— weary. 


envoler (s'), 1 




52 


— fly away. 


feindre, 4 




69 


— feign. 


envoyer, 1 65, 


82, 


118, 




feiiciter, 1 




41 


— congratu- 




125, 


131 


— send. 


fendre, 4 




66 


— split, [late. 


epargner, 1 




41 


— save, spare. 


ferir, 2 




44 


— rage. 


epeler, 1 




64 


— spell. 


ficelei\ 1 




64 


— tie with 


e'pouser, 1 




41 


— marry- 


fier (se), 1 




57 


—trust, [thread 


epousseter, 1 




64 


— dust. 


figurer (se), 1 




57 


— imagine. 


epreindre, 4 




69 


— wring. 


finir, 2 




44 


— end. 


eprendre is'), 4 




69 


— fall in love. 


./fa/ter, 1 




41 


— flatter. 


e'quivaloir, 3 




68 


— be equiva- 


flechtr, 2 




44 


— bend. 








lent. 


fletrir, 2 




44 


— brand. 


escompter, 1 




41 


— discount. 


fleurir, 2 




67 


— flourish. 


escrM)ier(s , ) t 1 




41 


— strive hard. 


f or f aire, 4 




68 


— forfeit, tres- 


esperer. 1 


64, 


131 


— hope. 








pass. 


essayer, 1 




65 


— try. 


formaliser (se) 1 


57 


— take excep- 


essuyer, 1 




65 


— wipe. 


former, 1 




41 


— form. [tion. 


estimer, 1 




41 


— esteem. 


fouettei*, 1 




64 


— whip. 


etablir, 2 




44 


— establish. 


fournir. 2 


44, 


125 


— furnish. 


eteindre, 4 




69 


— extinguish. 


frapp er, 1 




41 


— strike. 


ttiqueter, 1 




64 


— ticket. 


fremir, 2 




44 


— tremble. 


elonner, 1 




41 


— astonish. 


/rire, 4 




44 


— fry. 


etourdir, 2 




44 


— surprise, 


frissonner, 1 




41 


— shiver. 


eire, 4 


3C 


), 84 


— be. [stun. 


/tt/?\ 2 


69 


118 


— flee. 


e'lreindre, 4 




69 


— clasp, grasp. 


fumer, 1 




41 


— smoke. 


etudier, 1 




65 


— study. 










evader, 1 




41 


— evade. 






G. 




evanouir (s'), 2 




57 


— faint. 










eoaporer is'), 1 




57 


— evaporate. 


Gager, 1 




64 


To bet. wager. 


eceiller, 1 




64 


— awake. 


gagner. 1 




41 


— gain- 


e'vertuer (s'), 1 


65 


132 


— exert one's 


g aider, 1 




41 


— put on 


e'viter, 1 




41 


— avoid, [self. 








gloves. 


exceller, 1 


41 


,132 


— excel. 


garantir, 2 




44 


— warrant. 



196 PRINCIPAL VERBS OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 



Garder, 1 41, 103 

garnir, 2 44 

getter, 1 41 

geindre, 4 69 

geler, 1 64 

gemir, 2 44 
gendarmer (se), 1 57 

gener, 1 41 

ge'sir (ci-git), 2 44 

glisser, 1 41 

g outer, 1 41 

grandir, 1 36, 44 

greler, 1 41 

gresiller, 1 41 

griffonner, 1 41 

griller, 1 41 

grisonner, 1 41 

gronder, 1 41 

guerir, 2 44 



To keep. 

— garnish. 

— spoil. 

— moan. 

— freeze. 

— sigh. 

— rise in arms. 

— embarrass. 

— lie (here lies) 

— slip. 

— taste. 

— grow, rise. 

— hail. 

— sleet. 

— scrawl. 

— broil- 

— turn gray. 

— scold. 

— heal. 



Habiller, 1 
habituer, 1 
hair, 2 
harceler, 1 
hasarder, 1 
hater, 1 
hesiter, 1 
honnir, 2 
honorer, 1 
humecter, 1 
humilier, 1 
hypothe'quer, 



41 To dress. 

41, 132 — accustom. 

66, 119 — hate. 

84 —harass. 

41.131 —venture- 
41 — hasten. 

41. 132 — hesitate. 
44 — shame. 
41 —honor. 
41 —moisten. 
41 —humble. 
41 — mortgage. 



Ignorer, 1 41 

imaginer, 1 41, 131 

immiscer (s'j,l 64 

importer, 1 41 

imprimer, 1 41 

induire, 4 54 

industrier (s'), 1 57 

informer, 1 41, 126 

inquieter t 1 94 

inscrire, 4 69 

instruire, 4 69, 132 

insulter, 1 41 

inter dire, 4 59, 118 

interrompre, 4 69 



To ignore. 

— imagine. 

— meddle with 

— matter. 

— print. 

— induce. 

— be diligent. 

— inform. 

— disquiet. 

— inscribe. 

— instruct, 

— insult, [teach 

— prohibit. 

— interrupt. 



Intervenir, 2 
introduire, 4 
inv enter, 1 
inviter, 1 
irriter, 1 



Jaser, 1 

jaunir, 2 
jefer, 1 
jeuner, 1 
joindre, 4 
jouer, 1 



Labourer, 1 
lacher, 1 
laisser, 1 
lasser, 1 
lasser (se), 1 
toer, 1 
lecher, 1 
terer, 1 
tever (se), 1 
Zier, 1 
Zire. 4 
livrer, 1 
Zoftr, 2 
Zower, 1 
ftu're, 4 



Mdcher, 1 
maigrir, 2 
maintenir, 2 
malfaire, 4 
mander, 1 
manger, 1 
manquer, 1 
marcher, 1 
marquer, 1 
maudire, 4 
meconnattre, 4 



66 To interfere. 

69 — introduce. 

41 — invent. 

41, 132 — invite. 

41 — irritate. 



41 To chat. 

44 — turn yellow. 

64 — throw. 

41 — fast. 

69 —join. 

41, 129 — play. 



41 To labor. 

41 — let go. 

41, 131 — leave, let. 

41 —weary. 

57 — get tired. 

41 — wash. 

41 — lick. 

65 — raise. 

57 — rise. 

65 — tie. 

83, 119 — read. 

41 — furnish. 

44 — portion off. 

41 — praise. 

69, 119 — shine. 



M. 

41 
45 
66 
68 
41 
64 
41 
41 
41 
), 119 
68 



mecompter (se), 1 67 
mewoire, 4 69 

medire, 4 69, 118 

me f aire, 4 68 

mifier (se), 1 65 



To chew. 

— get lean. 

— maintain. 

— do evil. 

— order. 

— eat. 

— fail. 

— march. 

— mark. 

— curse. 

— mistake. 

— miscount. 

— misbelieve. 

— slander. 

— do wrong. 

— mistrust. 



PRINCIPAL VERBS OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 197 



Menacer, 1 




64 


To threaten. 


Obscurcir, 2 


44 


To darken. 


mendier, 1 




41 


— beg. 


observer, 1 


41, 131 


— observe. 


menei% 1 


65, 


131 


— lead. 


obstinei* is'),l 


41, 132 


— persist. 


mentir, 2 




45 


-lie. 


obtenir, 2 


66 


— obtain. 


me'prendre (se), 


1 


57 


— make mis- 


occupy, 1 


41 


— occupy. 








take. 


offensei*, 1 


41 


— offend. 


mepriser, 1 




41 


— despise. 


offrir, 2 


46, 132 


— offer. 


oner iter, 1 




41 


— deserve. 


oindre, 4 


69 


— anoint. 


mesaRier, 1 




65 


— demean 


omettre, 4 


68 


— omit. 








one's self. 


opinidtrer (s'),l 


57 


— beobstin;;'( 


mesurer, 1 




41 


— measure. 


oser, 1 


41, 131 


— dare- 


messeoir, 3 




82 


— be unbe- 


oter, 1 


41, 125 


— take away- 








coming. 


oublier, 1 


66 


— forget. 


mettre, 4 


68, 


119 


— put, set. 


ou'ir, 2 


44 


— hear. 


mettre (se), 4 


68, 


132 


— begin. 


ourdir, 2 


45 


— plot, hatch. 


meubler, 1 




41 


— furnish. 


ouvrir, 2 


46 


— open . 


meurtrir, 2 




44 


— bruise. 








modeler, 1 




64 


— model. 




P. 




moisir, 2 




45 


— turn mouldy 








montei*, 1 


36, 


41 


— mount, as- 


Paitre, 4 


68 


To graze. 


montrer, 1 


41, 


132 


— show. [cend. 


pdlir, 2 


44 


— turn pale. 


moquer (se), 1 




57 


— laugh at. 


panser, 1 


41 


— groom 


mordre, 4 




69 


— bite. 






horses 


morfondre, 4 




69 


- chill. 


parattre, 4 52 


, 68, 131 


— appear. 


mouchei*, 1 




41 


— blow nose. 


parbouillir, 2 


44 


— parboil. 


moudre, 4 


69, 


119 


— grind. 


parcourlr, 2 


66 


— travel over 


mourir, 2 66 


,82 


119 


— die. 


pardonnef)\ 1 


41 


— pardon. 


mouvoir, 3 


67, 


119 


— move. 


parfaire. 4 


68 


— perfect. 


munir, 2 




44 


— furnish. 


parier, 1 


65 


— wager. 


mtirir, 2 




44 


— ripen. 


parjurer (se), 1 
parier, 1 


57 
41 


— perjure. 

— speak. 






N. 




pariagei\ 1 


64 


— share. 


Nager, 1 
naitre, 4 




64 
119 


To swim. 
— be born. 


parllr, 2 
parvenir, 2 


45, 119 
66 


— depart. 

— succeed. 


ne'gl'iger, 1 




64 


— neglect. 


passer, 1 
passer (se), 1 


39, 41 
57, 127 


— pass. 

— do without. 


neiger, 1 
nettoyer, 1 




64 
66 


— snow. 

— clean. 


patiner, 1 


41 


— skate. 


raer, l 


65, 


131 


— deny. 


payer. 1 


65, 125 


— pay. 


niveler, 1 




64 


— level. 


pecher, l 


64 


— sin. 


noircir, 2 




44 


— blacken. 


pecker, 1 
peindre, 4 


65 
69 


— fish. 

— paiiit. 


nommer, 2 




41 


— name, nom- 








nouer, 1 




65 


— tie. [inate. 


pe?pr, 1 


65 


— peal. 


nourrir, 2 




44 


— nourish. 


pencher, 1 


41, 132 


— incline. 


noyer, 1 




65 


— drown. 


pendre, 4 
pe'ne'trer, 1 


69 
41 


— hani:. 

— penetrate. 


nuire, 4 


68 


, 119 


— injure. 


pensei\ 1 41,128,129,132 


— think. 






o. 




percer, 1 


64 


— pierce. 








percevoir, 3 


49 


— perceive. 


05 #r, 2 




44 


To obey. 


perdre, 4 


69 


— lose. 


obliger, 1 




64 


— oblige. 


ptr'xr, 2 


36, 44 


— perish. 



198 PRINCIPAL VERBS OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 



Perwettre, 4 
perseverer, l 
peser, l 
pincer, 1 
piquer, 1 
piquer (se), 1 
plaindre, 4 55, 
plaire, 4 68, 
pleurer, l 
pleuvoir, 3 
poindre,! 
polir, 2 
ponctuer, 1 
poudre, 4 
porter, 1 
poser, 1 
posseder, 1 
pourfendre, 4 
pourrir, 2 
poursuivre, 4 
p oar voir, 3 
pousse?', 1 
pouvoir.3 68,88 
precher, 1 
pr&dire, 4 
preferer, 1 
prendre, 4 69, 
preparer, 1 
prescrire, 4 
presenter, 2 
pressentir, 2 
presser, 1 
prelendre, 4 
preter, l 
prevaloir, 3 
prevaloir (se),l 
prtfvenir, 2 
prevoir, 3 
prier, 1 
priser, 1 
priver, 1 
produire, 4 
projeter, 1 
promener (se), 1 
promettre, 4 
prononcer, 1 
promouvoir, 3 
proposer, 1 
proposer {se), 1 
proscrire, 4 



68 
41, 132 

65 
41, 129 

41 

57 

68, 119 
119, 132 

31 

49, 119 

69 

44 

46 

69 

41, 132 

41 

41 

51 

44 

69 

48, 120 

41, 132 

,120,131 

41 

69, 118 

45, 131 

120, 125 

41, 132 

69 

41 

45 

41 

69, 131 
41 

68, 120 
57 
66 
68, 120 
65, 126 
41 
41 
54 
74 
57 
69 
64 
67 
41 
127 
69 



To permit. 

— persevere. 

— weigh. 

— pinch , play. 

— prick. 

— boast. 

— complain. 

— please. 

— weep. 

— rain. 

— dawn. 

— polish. 

— punctuate. 

— lay eggs. 

— carry, in- 

— pose. [duce. 

— possess. 

— split. 

— spoil. 

— pursue. 

— provide. 

— push. 

— be able. 

— preach. 

— predict. 

— prefer. 

— take. 

— prepare. 

— prescribe. 

— present. 

— anticipate. 

— push, urge. 

— pretend. 

— lend. 

— prevail. 

— avail one's 

— inform. [self. 

— foresee. 

— pray. 

— snuff. 

— deprive. 

— produce. 

— project. 

— take a walk. 

— promise. 

— pronounce. 

— promote. 

— propose. 

— purpose. 

— proscribe. 



Prostei*ner (se), 1 57 To kneel down. 



proteger, 1 64 

protester, 1 41, 131 

provenir, 2 66 

provoquer,l 41,132 

puer, 1 41 

punir, 2 39, 44 



Qualifiei\ 1 
qiiereller, 1 
que'rir, 2 
questionner, 1 
quitter, 1 



Rdbattre, 4 69 
raccommoder, 1 41 

rachetert 1 64 

racier, 1 41 

raconter. 1 41 

raffiner, 1 41 

railler,! .41 

raisormer, 1 41 
rajeunlr, 2 36, 44 



ramasser, 1 
ramenefr, 1 
ramer, 1 
ramper, 1 
ranger, 1 
rapiecer, 1 
rappeler, 1 



41 
65 
41 
69 
64 
65 
61, 131 



rappeler (se), 1 57, 127 
rapportei\ 1 41, 131 
rapporter (se), 1 41 
raser, 1 41 

rasseo'ir, 3 49 



raviser (se), 1 
rebattre, 4 
rebeller(se), 1 
reboire, 4 
rebouillir, 2 



57 
69 
57 
69 
44 



— protect. 

— protest. 

— be produced 

— provoke. 

— smell bad. 

— punish. 



65 To qualify. 

64 — quarrel, 

68 —demand. 

21 — question. 

41 — leave. 



recevoir, 3 49, 67, 82 
recommander. 1 41 
recompenser, 1 41 

reconduire, 4 54 



To abate. 

— mend. 

— buy back. 

— scrape. 

— relate. 

— refine. 

— joke, tease. 

— reason, talk. 

— be young 

again. 

— collect again 

— bring back. 

— row- 

— creep. 

— set in order. 

— mend. 

— recall. 

— remember. 

— relate. . 

— relate to. 

— erase, shave 

— sit down 

again. 

— reconsider. 

— beat again. 

— rebel. 

— drink again. 

— boil again. 

— receive. 

— recommend 

— reward. 

— bring back. 






PRINCIPAL VERBS OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 199 



Reconnaitre, 4 


52. 131 


To recognize. 


Bentrer, 1 


36 


, 41 


To re-enter. 


reconquer ir, 2 


66 


— reconquer. 


repaitre. 4 




68 


— feed.rejoice. 


recoudre, 4 


51 


— sew up 


repandre, 4 




69 


— spread- 






again. 


reparaitre, 4 




68 


— reappear. 


recourir, 2 


66 


— have re- 


repartir, 2 




45 


— start again. 






course. 


repassei*, 1 


36 


, 41 


— mend. 


recouvrer, 1 


41 


— recover. 


repentir (se), 2 




45 


— repent. 


re' crier (se), 1 


65 


— exclaim. 


repondre, 4 


69 


,130 


— answer. 


rewoitre, 4 


52 


— grow again. 


reposer (se), 1 




57 


— rest. 


recueillir, 2 


82 


— gather. 


reprendre, 4 




69 


— resume. 


recuire, 4 


54 


— boil again. 


reprocher, 1 


41 


125 


— reproach. 


redescendre, 4 


36, 51 


— descend 


reproduire, 4 




54 


— reproduce. 






again. 


repugner, 1 


41, 


132 


— be repug- 


redire, 4 


69, 118 


— say again. 








nant. 


reduire, 4 


54, 132 


— reduce. 


requerir, 2 




68 


— request. 


reelire, 4 


69 


— re-elect. 


resign er, 1 


41, 


132 


— resign. 


refaire, 4 


68 


— do over 


resoudre, 4 


60, 


120 


— resolve. 






again. 


ressembler, 1 




41 


— resemble. 


refaire (se), 4 


57 


— recover. 


ressentir, 2 




45 


— resent. 


re'fle'chir,.2 


44 


— reflect. 


ressortir, 2 


36, 


41 


— come out 


refondre, 4 


69 


— recast. 








again. 


refrogner (se), 1 


67 


— frown. 


ressouvenir (se 


),1 


57 


— remember. 


refroidir (se), 2 


57 


— catch cold- 


rester, 1 


36, 


41 


— remain. 


refugier (se), 1 


65 


— take refuge. 


restreindre, 4 




69 


— confine. 


refuser, 1 


41 


— refuse. 


resultei*, 1 


36, 


41 


— result. 


regalei\ 1 


41 


— treat. 


7^tablir,2 




44 


— reestablish. 


regarder, 1 


41, 131 


— regard. 


retenir, 2 




66 


— retain. 


regeler, 1 


64 


— freeze again 


retomber, 1 




41 


— fall back. 


regler, l 


65 


— regulate. 


retordre, 4 




69 


— twist. 


rigner, 1 


65 


— reign. 


retourner, 1 


41, 


131 


— return. 


regretter, 1 


64 


— regret. 


reunir, 2 




44 


— reunite. 


rejoindre, 4 


69 


— join again. 


re us sir, 2 


44, 


132 


— succeed. 


rejouir (se), 2 


57 


— rejoice. 


revaloir, 3 




68 


— return. 


relier, 1 


65 


— bind. 


r4velei\ 1 




65 


— reveal. 


retire, 4 


83 


— read again. 


revenir, 2 


48, 


131 


— return. 


reluire, 4 


69 


— shine again. 


?-erp?% 1 


65, 


128 


— dream. 


remander, 1 


41 


— remand. 


reuetir, 2 




51 


— put on. 


remercier, 1 


64,126 


— thank. 


revivre, 4 




51 


— revive. 


remettre, 


68 


— replace. 


reroir, 3 




68 


— see again. 


remonter, 1 


41 


— mount again 


r&Dolter (se), l 




57 


— rebel. 


ranparer (se), 1 


57 


— get hold 


?'iVe, 4 


69, 


120 


— laugh. 


remplir, 2 


44 


— fulfil [again. 


risquer, 1 


41, 


132 


— risk. 


remuer, 1 


65 


— stir, [again. 


rompre, 4 


69, 


120 


— break. 


renaitre, 4 




— be born 


rongei\ 1 




64 


— gnaw. 


rencontre**, 1 


41 


— meet.tagain. 


?'6^'r, 2 




44 


— roast. 


rendormir (se), 2 


57 


— fall asleep. 


rougir, 2 




44 


— blush. 


rendre, 4 


40 


— return, ren- 


rouiller, 1 




41 


— rust. 


renoncer, 1 


41, 132 


— giveup.[der. 


roussir, 2 




44 


— redden. 


renouveler, 1 


64 


— renew. 


rouvrir, 2 




46 


— open again. 


?'ense*'0ner, 


41 


— inform. 


miner, 1 




41 


— ruin. 



200 PRINCIPAL VERBS OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 



S. 

Sacrifier, 1 65 

saigner,! 41 

saillir, 2 44, 82 

saisir.2 44 

saftr, 2 44 

saluer, 1 65 

sangloter, 1 41 

satisfaire, 4 68 

saute)*, 1 41 

sauvei\ 1 41, 131 
savoir, 3 89, 105, 120 

savourer. 1 41 



64, 



secourir, 2 
seduire, 4 
sembler, 1 
seiner, 1 
sentir. 2 
seoir, 3 
server, 1 
servir, 2 
servir {se), 2 
sevrer, 1 
soigner, 1 
songer, 1 
sonner, 1 
sortir, 1 
souder, 1 
souffrir, 2 
souli alter, 1 
souJager, 1 
souler, 1 
soidigner, 1 
soumettre, 4 
soupconnei\ 1 
souper, 1 
soupirer, 1 
sourdre, 4 
sour ire, 4 
souswire, 4c 
soustvaire, 4 
soutenir, 2 
souvenir (se), 2 
subir, 2 
subsister, 1 
subvenir, 2 
succe'der, 1 
sucrer, 1 



45 
69 

41, 131 
65 

45, 131 

120 

41 

45, 182 

127 

65 

41 

128, 132 

41 

36, 45 
41 
46 

41, 131 
64 
41 
41 
68 
41 
41 
41 
69 
65 
69 
69 

66, 131 

57, 127 
44 
41 
66 
65 
41 



To sacrifice. 

— bleed. 

— sally out. 

— seize. 

— soil. 

— greet. 

— sob. 

— satisfy. 

— spring,] ump 

— save. 

— know. 

— enjoy by 

taste. 

— succor. 

— seduce. 

— seem. 

— sow. 

— feel. 

—be becoming 

— press close- 

— serve. [ly. 

— make use of. 

— sever. 

— nurse. 

— dream. 

— sound. 

— go out. 

— solder. 

— suffer. 

— wish. 

— relieve, ease 

— get drunk. 

— underscore. 

— submit. 

— suspect. 

— sup. 

— sigh. 

— spring (wat- 

— smile, [er.) 

— subscribe. 

— take away. 

— sustain. 

— recall. 

— undergo. 

— subsist. 

— assist. 

— succeed. 

— sweeten. 



Sufilre, 4 69, ] 


L20, 132 


To suffice. 


suivre, 4 


69, 120 


— follow. 


supplier,! 


65 


— supply. 


suppliei\ 1 


65 


— supplicate. 


supposer, 1 


41 


— suppose. 


surcroitre, 4 


52 


— grow out. 


surf aire, 4 


68 


— overcharge 


surprendre, 4 


51 


— surprise. 


surseoir, 3 


49 


— delay. 


survenir, 2 


48 


— happen. 


survivre, 4 


51 


— survive. 


suspendre, 4 


69 

T. 


— suspend. 


Tdcher, 1 


41, 128 


To try. 


tacher, 1 


41 


— stain. 


tailler, 1 


41 


— cut. 


ta**re (se), 4, 


57, 120 


— be silent. 


tarder, l 


41. 132 


— delay. 


taWr, 2 


44 


— dry up. 


teindre, 4 


69 


— stain. 


temoigner, 1 


41, 131 


— witness. 


tendre, 4 


69. 132 


— stretch out- 


temV, 2 48, 66 


, 82, 132 


- hold. 


tenter, 1 


41 


— tempt. 


firer, l 


41 


— draw. 


tomber, 1 


41 


- fall. 


tondre, 4 


69 


— shear. 


tonner, 1 


41 


— thunder. 


tordre, 4 


69 


— twist. 


toucher, 1 


41 


— touch. 


iourner, 1 


41 


— turn. 


tousser, 1 


41 


— cough. 


traduire, 4 


54 


— translate. 


trahir, 2 


44 


— betray. 


traire, 4 


69, 120 


— milk. 


trausmettre, 4 


68 


— transmit. 


transcrire, 4 


69 


— transcribe. 


trav aider, 1 


14, 132 


— work. 


travextir, 2 


44 


— parody. 


tressaillir, 2 


41 


— tremble. 


tromper, 1 


41, 127 


— deceive. 


trouer, 1 


41 


— make a hole 


trouvei*, 1 


41 


-find. 


tar, 2 


65 

v. 


- kill. 


Yaincre, 4 


69, 120 


To overcome. 


valoir, 3 68 


101, 121 


— be worth. 






PRINCIPAL VERBS OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 



201 



Vanler, 1 




41 


To boast. 


Vieillir, 2 




36, 44 


To grow old. 


vaquer, 1 




41 


— be vacant. 


viser, l 




41, 172 


— aim at. 


veiller, 1 




41 


— watch. 


visiter, 1 




41 


— visit. 


vendre, 4 




57 


- sell. 


vivre, 4 




51, 121 


— live. 


venir, 2 66, 


82, 121, 


131 


— come. 


voir, 3 


68, 


121, 131 


— see. 


vernir, 2 




44 


— varnish. 


voler, 1 




41, 125 


— steal. 


verser, l 




41 


— pour out. 


vouer, 1 




41, 132 


— devote. 


veftr, 2 


44, 


121 


— dress. 


vouloir, 3 


68,88,121,131 


— be willing 


mder, 1 




41 


— empty. 


voyager, l 




64 


— travel . 



4£_! — .t=^rf« — 4_$ 



PUBLICATIONS 



— IN — 



French aail Other Languages 

— OF — 

WILLIAM R. JENKINS, 

New York. 



Attention is particularly called to the following series of re- 
prints as of great value to the student as well as the general 
reader of French. The romances and plays are interesting as 
stories, representative of the authors, of high literary value and 
pure in morality. They are tastefully printed, cheap, and suita- 
ble as well for the class-room as the library. 

ROMANS CHOISIS. 

Sold at 60 Cents each* or less than half the price of 
the Paris editions here. 

No. l,-*'DOSIA, by Mme. Henry GKEViiiijE. One of the bright- 
est and most amusing of this popular author's stories. 
214 pages 60c. 

No. 2.— "L'ABBE CONSTANTIN, by Ludovic Halevy, 
whose delicate charm and beauty of story has won its 
author the coveted chair in the Academie Francaise. With 
English notes by Prof. Sumichrast, of Harvard University. 
193 pages 60c. 

No. 3.— "LE MARIAGE DE GERARD, by Andre Thetj- 
riet. A delightful story of French provincial life by one 
of the most elegant of French writers. 234 pages 60c. 

No. 4.— "LE ROI DES MONTAGNES, by Edmond About, 
Which is one of the cleverest, most amusing and brilliant. 
of this lamented author's romances. 297 pages 60c. 

No. 5.— "LE MARIAGE DE GABRIELLE, by Daniel 
Lesueur. An interesting story of Parisian life, written so 
cleverly that it has been crowned by the French Academy, 
257 pages 60c. 

Uo. 6.— "L'AMI FRITZ," by Erckmann-Chatrian. One of 
the most delightful and humorous of these clever authors' 
romances. 303 pages 60c. 

No. 7. — " L'OMBRA, by A. Gennevraye." A romantic story 
of Italian and English society. 216 pages 60c. 



2 French Publications of William R. Jenkins. 

No. 8.— "LE MAITEE DE FORGES," by Geoeges Ohnet. 
One of the most powerful and interesting of contemporan- 
eous novels. 341 pages 60c. 

No. 9.— "LA NEUVAINE DE COLETTE," by * * * reprinted 
from the "Revue des deux Mondes." A bright, amusing 
and original romance of a young girl. 236 pages 60c. 

No. 10.— "PERDUE," by Mme. Heney Geeville. 359 
pages 60c. 

No. 11.—" Mlee. SOLANGE." (Terre de France), by Fean- 
cois de Juddiot. Ouvrage couronne par l'Academie 
Francaise. 359 pages 60c, 

No. 12.— "VAILLANTE, ou Ce que femme veut," by Jacques 
Vincent. ( Monty on prize.) 227 pages 60c. 

No. 13.—" LE TOUR DU MONDE EN QUATRE-VINGT 
JOURS." By Jules Veene. 358 pages 60c. 

No. 14— "LE ROMAN D'UN JEUNE HOMME PAUVRE," 
by Octave Feuidlet. An excellent edition of this 
popular romance. 204 pages 60c. 

No. 15.— "LA MAISON DE PENARVAN," by Jules San- 
deau. One of this author's best written and most 
interesting works. 292 pages 60c. 

No. 16.—" L'HOMME A L'OhtEILLE CASSEE," par Edmond 
About. A fascinating story full of humorous situations, 60c. 

No. 17.— "SANS FAMILLE," par Hectoe Madot, abridged 
and arranged for school use by Prof. P. Beecy, B.L.L.D. 
430 pages 60c. 

No. 18.—" COSIA," by Andee Michel Dueand. 165 pages. 60c. 

No. 19.— MON ONCLE ET MON CURS, by Jean de la 
Beete. Ouvrage couronne par TAcademie Francaise, 60c. 

The series will be continued with stories of Jules Sandeau, 
Ohnet, Jules Verne and other well known writers. 

GRAZIELLA. By A. De Lamaetine. A new and tasteful 
edition of this charming idyl of Italian life. 12mo., paper, 
173 pages 45c. 

OINQ-MARS. By Adfeed de vigny. A new and handsome 
edition of this well-known historical French novel has 
been published, and Mr. Jenkins has arranged for its issue 
here, with explanatory notes in English. 12mo., cloth, $1.25 
The same without notes, cloth, 450 pages $1.00 

LA TULIPE NOIRE. By Aeexandee Dumas. A very 
pretty and cheap edition of this interesting and popular 
historical romance, which is excellently adapted for 
classes. 12mo., paper, 304 pages 45c. 

LES POETES FRANCAIS DU XlXeme SIECLE, with bio- 
graphical and explanatory notes in English, by Peof. C. 
Fontaine, B.L., L.D, 12mo., cloth, 402 pages $1.50 



French Publications of William R. Jenkins. 3 

The second series is the 

THEATRE CONTEMPORAIN 

comprising some of the best contemporaneous French dramatic 
literature, and of invaluable use to the student in colloquial 
French. They are well printed in good clear type, are nearly 
all annotated with English notes for students, and are sold at the 
uniform price of 

25 CENTS EACH. 

No. 1.— LE VOYAGE DE M. PERRICHON. By E. Labiche. 
With notes in English by Schele de Vere, Prof, of 
modern languages at the University of Virginia. 78 pp., 25c. 

No. 2.— VENT D'OUEST, 20 pages, ) By E. d'HERViLLY. 

LA SOUPIERE. 18 pages, ) 1 vol 25c. 

No. 3.— LA GRAMMAIRE. By E. Labiche. With notes in 
English by Schele de Vere, Prof, of modern languages 
at the University of Virginia. 43 pages 25c. 

No. 4.—LE GENTILHOMME PAUVRE. By Dumanoir & 
Laf argue . With English notes by Casimir Zdanowicz, 
Professor of Modern Languages, at the Vanderbilt Uni- 
versity. 82 pages 25c. 

No. 5.— LA PLUIE ET LE BEAU TEMPS, ] 

By Leon Gozlan. ! 1R nQ „. e ~ 

AUTOUR D'UN BERCEAU, j-*> pages, .jdc. 

By E. Legouve. J 

No. 6.— LA F£E, 43 pages. By Octave Feuillet 25c. 

No. 7.— BERTRAND ET RATON. ByE. Scribe. 108 pp., 25c. 

No. 8.— LA PERLE NOIRE. By Victories Sardou . 72 pp., 25c. 

No. 9.— LES DEUX SOURDS. By JtTles Moinaux. 37 pp., 25c. 

No. 10.— LE MAITRE DE FORGES. By Georges Ohnet. 
With English notes by Prof. C. Fontaine, B.L,,L.D., of 
the High School of Washington, 112 pages 25c. 

No. 11.— LE TESTAMENT DE CESAR G1RODOT. By 
Adolphe Belot and E. Villetard, with English notes 
by Prof. Geo. Castegnier. 98 pages 25c. 

No. 12.— LE GENDRE DE M. POIRIER. By £mi:le 
Augier and Jules Sandeau, with English notes by Prof. 
T. SmiiCHRAST, of the Harvard University. Ill pages. .25c. 

No. 13.— LE MONDE OU L'ON S'ENNUIE. By Sdouard 
Paikleron, with English Notes by Prof. Alfred Henne- 
quin, of the University of Michigan. 124 pages 25c. 

No 14.— LA LETTRE CHARGEE. By E. Labiche; with 
Annotations, by Prof. V. F. Bernard. 23 pages 25c. 



4 French Publications of William R. Jenkins. 

No. 15.— LA FILLE DE ROLAND. By Henki de Bornier. 
96 pages 25c. 

No. 16.— HERNANI. By Victor Hugo, with English notes 
by Gustave Masson. 151 pages 25c 

No. 17.— MINE ET CONTRE-MINE. By Prof. A. Guili,et, 
with English notes by the Author. 97 pages 25c. 

No. 18.— L' AMI FRITZ, with English notes, by Prof. A. 
Hennequin, of the University of Michigan. 96 pages . . 25c, 

No. 19.— L'HONNEUR ET L'ARGENT. By F. Ponsard, 

with English notes by F. 0. Suhichrast, Asst. Professor 
in French in Harvard University. 135 pages ». 25c* 

No. 20.— "LA DUCHESSE COUTURIERE," by Mme. E. 
Vaillant Goodman, adapted especially for the use of 
young ladies' schools and seminaries 25c. 



The third series comprises some of the very best short stories, 
nouvelles of French authors. They are very prettily printed, 
of convenient size, and are issued under the title of 

CONTES CHOISIS, 

and are published at the uniform price of 

Paper, 25 cents; Cloth, 50 cents each. 

NO. 1.— "LA MERE DE LA MARQUISE." By Edmond 
About. A most delightful and amusing story. 135 pages, 25c* 

No. 2.— «LE SIEGE DE BERLIN ET AUTRES CONTES." 
By AiiPHONSE DatjCet. Comprising six of this brilliant 
author's charming short stories. 73 pages 25c* 

No. 3.—" UN MARIAGE D'AMOUR." By Ludovic Halevy. 
A delightful little love romance, pure, bright and deli- 
cious. 73 pages 25c* 

No. 4.— "LA MARE AU DIABLE." By George Sand. 
A charming idyl of French country life. 142 pages 25c* 

No. 5.— "PEPPING," by L. D. Ventura, is a story of Italian 
Life in New York, written by a well-known professor of 
languages. 65 pages 25c* 

No. 6. — "IDYLLES, by Mme. Henry Gr^vi^le^' contains a 
number of stories, full of sentiment and poetry, and in 
this delightful author's most elegant style. 110 pages. . 25c* 

No. 7.—** CARINE. By Louis Enault." An entertaining love 
story, of which the s'oene is laid in Sweden. 181 pages. .25c. 



French Publications of William R. Jenkins 5 

No.8.— " LES FIANCES DE GRINDERWALD." By Erck- 
mann-Chatrian. Containing, besides this amusing little 
romance, the characteristic one of " Les Amoureux de 
Catherine." 104 pages 25c, 

No. 9.—*' LES FRfiRES COLOMBE." By Georges de 
Peyrebrune. One of the most exquisitely written stories 
of the series. With English notes by Prof. T. Sumichrast, 
of the Harvard University. 136 pages 25c. 

No. 10.— "LE BUSTE." By Edmond About. An entertaining 
story of Parisian life, full of the author's bright humor, 
and in his well-known style. 145 pages 25c. 

INo. 11.— "LA BELLE-NIVERNAISE. By Alphonse Dau- 
det. A charming idyl of life on the Seine. With English 
notes by Prof. Geo. Castegnier. Ill pages 25c. 

No. 12.— "LE CHIENDUCAPITAINE." By Louis Enault. 
A delightfully humorous story, with a dog hero, — charm- 
ingly narrated. With English notes by F. C. Sumichrast, 
Asst. Professor in French at Harvard University. 158 
pages 25c. 

No. 13.— "BOUM-BOUM." By Jules Cdaretie, with other 
exquisite little stories. 104 pages 25c. 

No. 14.— "L'ATTELAGE DE LA MARQUISE," by Leon de 
Tinseau, and "UNE DOT," by E. Legouve. With 
English Notes by F. C. Sumichrast, of the Harvard Uni- 
versity . Ill pages 25c. 

No. 15.— "DEUX ARTISTES EN VOYAGE," by Comte de 
Vervin, with two other stories 25c. 

3To. 16.— "COxVTES ET NOUVELLES," par Guy de Mau- 
passant. 105 pages 25c. 

theAtre for young folks. 

A series of original little plays suitable for class read- 
ing or school performance, written especially for children, by 
MM. Michaud and de Yilleroy. Printed" in excellent type, duo- 
decimo form. 

The list comprises 
No. 1.— LES DEUX SCOLIERS. 26 pages. By A. Laurent 

DE VlLDEROY 10c. 

2.— LE KOI D'AMfiRIQUE, 8 pages, By H. Michaud. 10c. 
3.— UNE AFFAIRE COMPLIQU^E, 8 pages, " 10c. 

4.— LA SOMNAMBULE, 16 pages, 1 

5.— STELLA, 16 pages \ p Gil u 1Q 

6.— UNE HEROINE, 16 pages. ... | * or uiris 1UC * 

7.— MA BONNE, 14 pages J 

MICHAUD, (HENRI.) "POESIES DE QUATRE A HUIT 
VERS." A choice selection of simple French poetry, suit- 
able for little children to read and recite. 12mo, paper. .20c. 



6 French Publications of William R. Jenkins. 

CLASSIQTJES FRANCAIS. 

- » 

Under this general title Mr. Jenkins is issuing a series of 
classical French works, carefully prepared with historical, 
descriptive and grammatical notes by competent authorities, 
which will be offered at a low price and in a very tasteful 
form. 

No. 1. — L'AVARE. Par Moliere. "With elaborate annotations 
by Schele de Vere, Professor of Modern Languages 
at the University of Virginia. 105 pages. Paper, 25c. 
Cloth , 40c. 

No. 2.— LE CID. Par Corneille. Annotated by Prof. Schele 
de Vere. 87 pages. Paper, 25c. Cloth 40c. 

No. 3.— LE BOURGEOIS GENTILHOMME. Par Moliere. 
Annotated by Prof. Schele de Vere. Paper, 25c. Cloth. 40c. 

No. 4. — HORACE, by Corneille, with annotations in English 
by F. C. Sumichrast, Asst. Professor at Harvard Uni- 
versity. 70 pages. Paper, 25c. Cloth , 40c. 

No. 5. — ANDROMAQUE, by Racine, with annotations in 
English by F. C. Sumichrast, Asst. Professor at Har- 
vard University. 72 pages. Paper, 25c. Cloth 40c. 



THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 

TEXT-BOOKS FOR STUDENTS. 

LIVRE DES ENFANTS. Pour V etude dufrancais. By Paul 

Bercy, B.L., L.D., A simple, easy and progressive 

French Primer, in the natural method, for young students, 

by the author of La Langue Francaise, with upwards of 

fifty illustrations. 12mo, cloth, 100 pages 50c. 

LE SECOND LIVRE DES ENFANTS. By Paul Bercy, B.L., 
L.D. A continuation of " LIVRE DES ENFANTS," 
illustrated with over fifty pictures upon which the lessons 
are based. 12mo, cloth, 148 pages 75c. 

LA LANGUE FRANgAISE. Vere partie. Methode pratique 
pour l'etude de cette langue. By Paul Bercy, B.L., 
L.D. 12mo, cloth, 292 pages $1.25 

LA LANGUE FRANCHISE. 2eme partie (for intermediate 
classes), varietes historiques et litteraires. By Paul 
Bercy, B.L., L.D. 12mo, cloth, 276 pages $1.25 

SANS FAMILLE. By Hector Malot, abridged and arranged 
for School use by Prof. P. Bercy, B.L.L.D., director of 
P. Berey's School of Languages, N. Y. 12mo, cloth. . .$1.25 






French Publications of William R. Jenkins. 7 

ANTONYMES DE LA LANGUE FRANfAISE, Exercises 
Gradues pour classes intermediaires et superieures des 
Ecoles, Colleges et Universites. Par Prof. A. Muz- 
zarelli, A.M., Director of the N. Y. Sauveur School of 

Languages 

Livre de L'£leve. Cloth, 185 pages SI. 00 

Livre du Maitre. Cloth, 185 pages $1 .50 

FIRST COURSE IN FRENCH CONVERSATION. By Prof. 
Charles P. Du Croquet. A manual for class or private 
use in acquiring a practical knowledge of conversational 
French. 12mo., cloth $1 .00 

To be ready for October 1st, 1891. 

THE FRENCH VERB. By Prof. Schelede Vere, Ph.D , 
LL.D,, of University of Virginia. 1 vol*, 12mo, cloth, $1.25 

In Preparation. 

FABLES CHOISIES de La Fontaine, with a preface on the 

author, and English and explanatory notes. 
LES PROSATEURS FRANCAJS DU XIXme SIECLE. By 

Prof. C. Fontaine, B.L., L.D., with explanatory notes in 

English. 

l£gendes franqaises. 

BY PROF. B. MERAS. 

ROBERT LE DIABLE 25c. 

LE BON ROI DAGOBERT 25c. 

MERLIN L'ENCHANTEUR 40c. 

These three legends offer the most interesting reading, and can be 
used as exercises for "Syntaxe Pratique*" 

SYNTAXE PRATIQUE DE LA LANGUE FRANCAISE POUR 
LES ANGLAIS, suivi d'exercices distribues dans l'ordre 
des regies et d'une nouvelle arrangee pour servir d'exer- 
cices, par B. Meras, Auteur de "L'£tude Progressive de 
la Langue Francaise." Sample sheets on application. 

12mo, cloth, 206 pages $1-25 

These are important contributions to the science of languages 
by the Natural Method, and are written by teachers of many 
years experience. They simplify the study of French in a re- 
markable manner. 



CONTES TIRES DE MOLIERE. Prof. Alfred M. Cotte, 
L.L., has written the story of some of the most salient of 
Moliere's Comedies into the forms of novelettes, similar 
in idea to Chas. and Mary Lamb's Tales from Shakespeare. 
"L'Avare'* nd " Le Bourgeois Gentelhomme " are 
now ready. Each 20c. 



& French Publications of William R. Jenkins. 

FRENCH VERBS AT A GLANCE. By Makiot de Beau- 
voisin. The readiest, simplest, most practical and cheap- 
est treatise on the French verbs, their grammatical con- 
struction, regular and idiomatic usage and conjugations. 
Exceedingly valuable in mastering the difficulties besetting 
students in French, in regard to the forms and conjuga- 
tions of the verb. Fifty thousand have been sold in 
England. 8vo, 61 pages 35c. 

<*ENRE DES NOMS. By Prof. V. F. Bernakd. A complete 
treatise on the gender of French nouns. 12mo 25c. 



DICTIONARIES. 

Following is a list of some of the best Dictionaries, which are 
always kept in stock in large quantities to supply the trade 
or schools. 

CASSELL'S GERMAN-ENGLISH AND ENGLISH-GERMAN 
DICTIONARY, new revised edition, large type, 12mo. 
Cloth $1.50 



FRENCH-ENGLISH & ENGLISH FRENCH DICTIONARIES. 

OASSELL'S FRENCH-ENGLISH AND ENGLISH-FRENCH 
DICTIONARY. 1 vol., crown, 8vo, cloth, 1152 pp $1.50 

SPIERS & SURENNE'S FRENCH-ENGLISH AND ENG- 
LISH-FRENCH PRONOUNCING DICTIONARY. 1 vol. 
4to, half-mor • • $4.50 

The same, abridged, school edition, crown, 8vo, half 

roan $2.25 

NUGENT'S FRENCH-ENGLISH AND ENGLISH-FRENCH 
PRONOUNCING DICTIONARY, 1 vol.,24mo, cloth.. ..$1.00 

FLEMING & TIBBINS.— Grand dictionnaire Francais-Anglais 

et Anglais-Francais, 2 vols., 4to, half mor $22.00 

Each volume separately at half price . 
-CLIFTON & GRIMAUX.— French-English and English- 
French Dictionary, 2 vols . , 8vo . , half mor $9.60 

Each volume sold separately at half price. 

SMITH, HAMILTON & LEGROS. 

French-English and English-French Dictionary, 

2 vols., half mor $6.50 

Each volume sold separately at 3.25 

N. B.— Having obtained the agency for this important dictionary 
I shall be pleased to mail specimen pages free on application. 



French Publications of William R. Jenkins. 9 

DICTIONNAIRES FRANQAIS. 

LITTRfi. — Dictionnaire de la langue francaise, 4 vols., 4to, 
et un supplement, (in all 5 vols.) half inor $45 . 00 

LITTRE & BEAU JEAN.— Abrege du dictionnaire de la 
langue Francaise de E. Littre, avec un supplement d'his- 
toire et de geographie, 1 vol . , 8vo . , half mor $6.00 

LITTRfi & BEAU JEAN.— Petit dictionnaire universel de la 
langue f rancaise, 1 vol . , 18mo . , bds . . . , $1 . 05 

LAROUSSE, PIERRE. — Nouveau dictionnaire complet de la 
langue francaise, illustrated with 1500 wood cuts, 24mo, 
bds 1.25 

DICTIONNAIRE DE L'ACADEMIE FRANCHISE, 2 vols., 
4to, half mor $16.25 

SUPPLEMENT au dictionnaire de l'Academie, containing 
words which are not to be found in the * 'Dictionnaire 
de l'Academie," 1 vol., 4to., half mor $11.20 



BIBLIOTHEQUE CHOISIE 

Pour la Jeunesse. 



LES MALHEURS DE SOPHIE. 

PAR 
MME. IiA COMTESSE DE SeGUR. 

This amusing story has long been familiar to French children 
and is not unknown even to American ones, especially to those 
reading French. In France it is a classic. Here, it has been 
used for years, by teachers requiring something light, amusing, 
and interesting for young children, and, the publisher in issuing 
an American reprint of it, trusts that it will find a wider 
clientele than ever, especially as the price is much lower than the 
Paris editions. 

12mo, illustrated, paper, 60c. ; cloth, 203 pages $1.00 



10 French Publications of William R. Jenkins. 



VICTOR HUGO'S WORKS, 



u 



NOTRE-DAME DE PARIS." 



Just published. The handsomest and cheapest Edition to be 
had, with nearly 200 illustrations, by Bielee, Myebach and 
Rossi. 2 volumes, 12mo., Paper, $2.00, Cloth, $3.00, Half Calf r 
$6.00, the set. This edition, while outwardly matching the 
other publications of Hugo in Mr. Jenkins' edition, contains 
all the superb illustrations of the edition de luxe, excepting 
those in color, so that it is the finest, as well as cheapest, popu- 
lar edition of the work yet issued, and cannot fail of meeting 
with the favor of American readers of French. 



SPECIAL NOTICE. 

In order to realize on the great outlay necessitated in the 
preparation of this superbly illustrated work, the remainder of 
the edition de luxe will be offered at the following 

REDUCED PRICES: 

THE EDITION DE GKAND LUXE, only 100 of which wa& 
published at $20.00 for the two volumes, will be offered for 
$14.00. 

THE EDITION DE LUXE, of which four hundred num- 
bered and signed copies were published at $12.00 the set of two 
volumes, will be offered until further notice at $ 8.00 the set. 



u 



LES MIS^RABLES," 



This new and elegant edition of Victor Hugo's masterpiece is 
not only the handsomest but the cheapest edition of the work to 
be obtained in the original French. Its publication in America 
has been attended with great care, and it is offered to all readers 
of French as the best library edition of the work to be obtained, 
the only Paris edition being large, cumbersome and costly. 



Foreign Publications of William K. Jenkins. 11 

lere partie : Fantine, 458 pages ; 2eme partie : Cosette 416 pages ; 
3eme partie : Marius, 378 pages ; 4eme partie : Idylle rue Plumet, 
512 pages ; 5eme partie : Jean Valjean, 437 pages. 

* 5 Volumes, 12mo, Paper, - $ 4.50. 

* <« " " Cloth, - 6.50, 

Half-calf, 13.50. 

♦For the convenience of classes, single volumes maybe obtained 
separately in paper at $1.00, and cloth binding at $1.50. 



" QUATREVINGT-TREIZE." 

One of the most graphic and powerful of Hugo's romances, 
and one quite suitable for class perusal. 12mo, paper, $1.00, 
€loth. $1.50, half calf, $3.00. 507 pages. 



"LES TRAVAILLETJRS DE LA MER." 

This celebrated work, which is one of the most notable 
examples of Victor Hugo's genius, is now ready, uniform in 
style with the above. 12mo, paper, $1.00, cloth, $1.50, half 
calf, $3.00. 



ITALIAN. 

NOVELLE ITALIANE. 

No. 1. "ALBERTO." by E. De^micis. This is the first of a 
new series of " Novelle Italiane," which, if properly sus- 
tained will be continued from time to time by other stories 
from the best contemporaneous Italian authors. " Al- 
berto " is a charming story by the great Italian author- 
taveler, whose romances are very little known on this side 
of the Atlantic. It has the advantage of English notes 
by Prof. T. E. Comba. 18mo. paper, 108 pages 35c. 

No. 2. "UNA NOTTE BIZZARRA." By Antonio Baekili. 
An amusing little story, by one of the best contempora- 
neous Italian novelists, with English notes by Prof. T. E. 
Comba. 18mo, 84 pages 35c 



12 Foreign Publications of William R. Jenkins. 

No. 3. " UN INCONTRO," by Edmondo de Amicis, and other 
Italian stories by noted writers, with English annota- 
tions by L. D. Ventura, Professor of Italian and French 
at the Amherst Summer School of Languages. 12mo., 
Paper, 104 pages 35c. 



4 * LINGUA ITALIAN A." By T. E. Comba. A new practical 
and progressive method of learning Italian by the natural 
method — replete with notes and explanation, and with 
full tables of conjugations and lists of the irregular 
verbs. 12mo, cloth, 223 pages $1.50 

SPANISH. 

Mr. Jenkins desires to announce that he has now ready the 
first of a series of Spanish plays of a similar scope to the French 
Theatre Contemporain, which will be issued at the same price. 
This play is 

LA INDEPENDENCE. By Don Manuel Breton de los 
Herreros, and is a bright modern comedy, excellently 
adapted for school readings. 12mo, paper,. 25c. 

CHINESE. 

A CHINESE-ENGLISH and ENGLISH-CHINESE PHRASE 
BOOK. By T. L. Stedman and K. P. Lee. 1 vol. 12mo., 
boards $1.00 

LATIN. 

THE BEGINNER'S LATIN, By Professor W. McDowell 

Halsey, Ph.D. 

An elementary work in Latin, admirably adapted for beginners 

in the language, and the result of many years' teaching on the 

part of the author. 12mo, cloth $1.00 



Full catalogue of French imported books and GENERAL 
SCHOOL BOOKS sent on application. Importation orders 
promptly filled at moderate prices. 



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